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Understanding

Second language

acquisition pageThis intentionally left blank

Understanding

Second language

acquisition

Lourdes Ortega

Understanding

Language Series

Series Editors:

Bernard Comrie

and

Greville Corbett

First published 2009 by Hodder Education

Published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2009 Lourdes Ortega

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. The advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, but neither the authors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 13: 978-0-340-90559-3 (pbk)

Extracts from The Philosopher's Demise: Learning French by Richard Watson are reprinted by permission of the University of Missouri Press. Copyright © 1995 by the Curators of the University of Missouri.

Cover © Mark Oatney/Digital Vision/GettyImages

Typeset in 11/12pt Minion by Phoenix Photosetting, Chatham, Kent A mis padres, Andrés y Lourdes, que tan bien me han entendido siempre en todas mis lenguas, aunque sólo compartamos una. my languages, even though we only share one. pageThis intentionally left blank

Contents

Prefacexiii

Tables and figuresxvi

1 Introduction1

1.1What is SLA?1

1.2Whence language? Description, evolution and acquisition2

1.3First language acquisition, bilingualism and SLA3

1.4Main concepts and terms5

1.5Interdisciplinarity in SLA7

1.6SLA in the world7

1.7About this book9

1.8Summary10

1.9Annotated suggestions for further reading10

2 Age12

2.1Critical and sensitive periods for the acquisition of human language 12

2.2Julie, an exceptionally successful late L2 learner of Arabic14

2.3Are children or adults better L2 learners? Questions of rate16

2.4Age and L2 morphosyntax: questions of ultimate attainment17

2.5Evidence on L2 morphosyntax from cognitive neuroscience20

2.6L2 phonology and age22

2.7What causes the age effects? Biological and other explanations23

2.8A bilingual turn in SLA thinking about age?25

2.9How important is age in L2 acquisition, and (why) does it matter? 27

2.10Summary28

2.11Annotated suggestions for further reading29

3 Crosslinguistic influences31

3.1On L1...L2 differences and similarities31

3.2Interlingual identifications32

3.3Besides the L134

3.4First language influences vis-à-vis development34

3.5Markedness and L1 transfer37

3.6Can a cup break? Transferability38

3.7Avoidance39

Contents

3.8Underuse and overuse 41

3.9Positive L1 in"uences on L2 learning rate 42

3.10First language in"uence beneath the surface: the case of information 44

structure

3.11Crosslinguistic in"uences across all layers of language 46

3.12Beyond the L1: crosslinguistic in"uences across multiple languages 48

3.13The limits of crosslinguistic in"uence 51

3.14Summary 52

3.15Annotated suggestions for further reading 54

4 The linguistic environment 55

4.2Acculturation as a predictive explanation for L2 learning success? 58

4.3Input for comprehension and for learning 59

4.4Interaction and negotiation for meaning 60

4.5Output and syntactic processing during production 62

4.6Noticing and attention as moderators of affordances in the environment 63

4.7Two generations of interaction studies 64

4.8The empirical link between interaction and acquisition 65

4.9Output modi“cation 67

4.10Learner-initiated negotiation of form 69

4.11Negative feedback during meaning and form negotiation 71

4.12The limits of the linguistic environment 76

4.13Summary 79

4.14Annotated suggestions for further reading 80

5 Cognition 82

5.1Information processing in psychology and SLA 82

5.2The power of practice: proceduralization and automaticity 84

5.3An exemplary study of skill acquisition theory in SLA: DeKeyser (1997) 85

5.4Long-term memory 87

5.5Long-term memory and L2 vocabulary knowledge 88

5.6Working memory 89

5.7Memory as storage: passive working memory tasks 91

5.8Memory as dynamic processing: active working memory tasks 92

5.9Attention and L2 learning 93

5.10Learning without intention 94

5.11Learning without attention 95

5.12Learning without awareness 96

5.13Disentangling attention from awareness? 97

5.14Learning without rules 99

5.15An exemplary study of symbolic vs associative learning: Robinson (1997) 100

5.16An emergentist turn in SLA? 102

5.17Summary 105

5.18Annotated suggestions for further reading 108

viii

Contentsix

6 Development of learner language110

6.1Two approaches to the study of learner language: general cognitive and 110

formal linguistic

6.2Interlanguages: more than the sum of target input and “rst language 112

6.3Cognitivist explanations for the development of learner language 113

6.4Formula-based learning: the stuff of acquisition114

6.5Four interlanguage processes116

6.6Interlanguage processes at work: Gesda118

6.7Development as variability-in-systematicity: The case of Jorges negation 119

6.8Interlanguage before grammaticalization: the Basic Variety of naturalistic 121

learners

6.9Patterned attainment of morphological accuracy: the case of L2 English 124

morphemes

6.10More on the development of L2 morphology: concept-driven emergence 126

of tense and aspect

6.11Development of syntax: markedness and the acquisition of L2 relativization 129

6.12A last example of systematicity: cumulative sequences of word order 130

6.13Fossilization, or when L2 development comes to a stop (but does it?) 133

6.14What is the value of grammar instruction? The question of the interface 136

6.15Instruction, development and learner readiness138

6.16Advantages of grammar instruction: accuracy and rate of learning 139

6.17The future of interlanguage?140

6.18Summary141

6.19Annotated suggestions for further reading143

7 Foreign language aptitude145

7.1The correlational approach to cognition, conation and affect in146

psychology and SLA

7.2Learning and not learning French: Kaplan vs Watson147

7.3Language aptitude, all mighty?148

7.4Aptitude as prediction of formal L2 learning rate: the MLAT149

7.5Is L2 aptitude different from intelligence and “rst language ability? 151

7.6Lack of L2 aptitude, or general language-related dif“culties?152

7.7Memory capacity as a privileged component of L2 aptitude154

7.8The contributions of memory to aptitude, complexi“ed156

7.9Aptitude and age158

7.10Does L2 aptitude matter under explicit and implicit learning conditions? 159

7.11Most recent developments: multidimensional aptitude161

7.12Playing it to ones strengths: the future of L2 aptitude?163

7.13Summary164

7.14Annotated suggestions for further reading166

8 Motivation168

8.1The traditional approach: the AMTB and motivational quantity168

8.2Integrativeness as an antecedent of motivation170

Contents

8.3Other antecedents: orientations and attitudes 171

8.4First signs of renewal: self-determination theory and intrinsic motivation 175

8.5Motivation from a distance: EFL learners" orientations and attitudes 178

8.6Language learning motivation: possible in situations of con"ict? 181

8.7Dynamic motivation: time, context, behaviour 183

8.8Looking forward: the L2 Motivational Self System 185

8.9Behold the power of motivation 188

8.10Summary 189

8.11Annotated suggestions for further reading 190

9 Affect and other individual differences 192

9.1Personality and L2 learning 193

9.2Extraversion and speaking styles 196

9.3Learner orientation to communication and accuracy 198

9.4Foreign language anxiety 200

9.5Willingness to communicate and L2 contact 202

9.6Cognitive styles, “eld independence and “eld sensitivity 205

9.7Learning style pro“les 206

9.8Learning strategies 208

9.9The future promise of an all-encompassing framework: self-regulation 211

theory

9.10Summary 212

9.11Annotated suggestions for further reading 214

10 Social dimensions of L2 learning 216

10.1The unbearable ineluctability of the social context 217

10.2Cognition is social: Vygotskian sociocultural theory in SLA 218

10.3Self-regulation and language mediation 219

10.4Some “ndings about inner, private, and social speech in L2 learning 221

10.5Social learning in the Zone of Proximal Development 224

10.6Negative feedback reconceptualized 225

10.7Interaction is social: Conversation Analysis and SLA 227

10.8The CA perspective in a nutshell 228

10.9Some contributions of CA-for-SLA 229

10.10Learning in CA-for-SLA? 232

10.11Grammar is social: Systemic Functional Linguistics 233

10.12Learning how to mean in an L2 234

10.13Language learning is social learning: language socialization theory 236

10.14The process of language socialization: access and participation 237

10.15The outcomes: what is learned through L2 socialization? 239

10.16Sense of self is social: identity theory 241

10.17L2 learners" identity and power struggles: examples from circumstantial 243

L2 learning

10.18Close impact of identities on L2 learning: examples from elective 245

L2 learning

x

Contentsxi

10.19Technology-mediated communication as a site for socially rich L2 248

learning

10.20Never just about language 250

10.21Summary 251

10.22Annotated suggestions for further reading 253

References 255

Author index 290

Subject index 296

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Preface

Writing a graduate-level introduction to SLA has been a challenge and, like all challenges, both a curse and a blessing in the effort. Perhaps part of the difficulty comes from the fact that I have always looked at textbooks with suspicion. they are, as Kuhn (1962/1996, p. 137) noted, 'pedagogic vehicles for the perpetuation of normal" disciplinary knowledge. In so doing, they can become unwitting tools for the inclusion and exclusion of what counts as validated work, and they portray disciplines as frozen in time and space. Good textbook authors also seek to tell an interesting story to their readers, and good stories always demand rhetorical sacrifices. Some of the rough edges of a discipline, the ambiguous trends, the less 'tellable" details, must be shunned for the sake of coherence and linearity, and a big story rather than a collection of 'small stories" narrator as they do about an event or a discipline. Textbooks are, therefore, one- sided views of any field, even when at first blush they may come across as perfectly innocent compendiums of available-to-all, neutral knowledge. I was painfully this awareness has helped me avoid the pitfalls. Another difficulty that made this challenge exciting but agonizing, and one that I writing for an imagined audience of students (the real consumers of textbooks) while still feeling the usual presence of one"s research community (the audience I appeal to and benefit our students versus our fellow researchers can be radically different. Thus, not only the language, but also the content, must be thoroughly to constantly ask myself: What would my students benefit from hearing about this topic? How can I make the material more engaging, the story more palatable? How can I make my passion for studying L2 learning contagious to them? I also drew upon the frequent questions, comments, reactions, complaints and amazements that my students have shared with me over a full decade of teaching SLA during each and every semester of my career thus far. I have had the good fortune of teaching these courses across four different institutional cultures, and this has

Preface

travelled. But all of them have been a strong presence as I wrote. I do not know if I honestly say I have tried my best to do so. I owe a debt of gratitude to many people who have supported me in this project. It has been a privilege to work with the Understanding Language Series editors, Bernard Comrie and Greville Corbett, whose astute comments and unflagging enthusiasm benefited me chapter after chapter. Norbert Schmitt suggested my name to them when they thought of adding a volume about SLA to the series, and so this opportunity would not have come my way without his initiative. At Hodder Education, the professionalism, kindness and savvy author psychology of Tamsin Smith and Bianca Knights (and Eva Martínez, initially) have been instrumental in helping me forward as I completed the project. Two of my students, Sang-Ki Lee and Castle Sinicrope, kindly volunteered their time to help me with comments and with tedious editorial and bibliographical details when it was much needed. A number of colleagues lent their time and expertise generously when I asked Sandra McKay, Carmen Muñoz and Richard Schmidt. Each of them took the incorporate. During the spring of 2008, Linda Harklau (at the University of Georgia) and Mark Sawyer (at Temple University in Japan) used a prepublication in two sections of SLA at the University of Hawai'i. I am most grateful to Linda, Mark and Robert (and their students and mine) for the faith they showed in the book. Knowing how diverse their disciplinary interests are, their positive reactions gave me confidence that the textbook would be friendly for use in very different Mark Sawyer, in particular, who became a most knowledgeable and engaged interlocutor during the last months of drafting and redrafting, emailing me his conversations with Kathryn Davis, Nina Spada (during an unforgettable summer spent at the University of Toronto) and Heidi Byrnes have also found their ways into small decisions along the writing process. Michael Long, as always, is to be thanked for his faith in me and for his generous mentorship. How I wish Craig Chaudron, my friend, mentor and colleague, could have been here too, to support me as he had so many times before with his meticulous and caring feedback, his historical wisdom and his intellectual rigour. His absence was huge SLA library that I have inherited from him with much sadness. I thank Lucía Aranda for many mornings of yoga and many moments of teaching me fortitude, giving me encouragement and keeping me sane. John Norris stood by me with his usual hard-to-find thoughtfulness, uncompromising intellect and warm heart. He was and is a vital source of inspiration and strength. With such rich help from so many experts and friends, one would think all the xiv

Prefacexv

I am cognisant of a number of shortcomings, all of which are my exclusive textbook - has humbled me, has renewed my passion for SLA in all its forms and has reminded me that in the making of a discipline, as in life, we should not take anything for granted. I have dedicated this book to my parents, who have never taken for granted my life- and language-changing decisions. They have always given me the two gifts of unconditional love and deep understanding.

Lourdes Ortega

South Rim of the Grand Canyon

7 July 2008

Tables and “gures

Table 2.1Critical and sensitive periods in animal learning, based on Knudsen (2004) Table 2.2L2 morphosyntactic knowledge along the age of onset continuum Table 2.3Differences between near-native and native morphosyntactic knowledge

Table 4.1Four early L2 recast studies

Table 5.1Memory tasks and benchmarks in the study of storage memory capacity Table 5.2How can awareness versus automatic attention be measured in SLA studies?

Table 6.2Jorge"s development of English negation

Table 6.3The Basic Variety summarized (based on Perdue, 1982; Klein and Perdue, 1997) Table 6.4Morpheme accuracy order, from earliest to latest mastery Table 6.5Three broad developmental phases in the expression of temporality Table 6.6Stages in the development of perfective (pretérito) and imperfective imperfecto ) aspect in L2 Spanish Table 6.7Relative clauses in L2 German following Keenan and Comrie"s (1977) Noun

Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy

Table 6.8The emergence of word order in L2 German according to Meisel et al. (1981) Table 6.9The emergence of questions in L2 English according to Pienemann et al. (1988)

Table 7.1Design of the MLAT

Table 8.1Watson vs Kaplan on three dimensions of motivation Table 8.2Main antecedents investigated in L2 motivation research

Table 9.1Affect and L2 learning

Table 9.2Three models of personality employed in SLA research Table 9.3Six of the ten dimensions in the Ehrman and Leaver (2003) Learning Style Model Table 9.4Self-Regulatory Capacity in Vocabulary Learning Scale illustrated (Teng et al., 2006)
Figure 6.1The two L2s by two L1s design of the ESF project (adapted from Perdue, 1982, p. 47)

Introduction

Language is one of the most uniquely human capacities that our species possesses, and one that is involved in all others, including consciousness, sociality and culture. other fellow humans. We mean and communicate about immediate realities as well as about imagined and remembered worlds, about factual events as well as about intentions and desires. Through a repertoire of language choices, we can directly or indirectly make visible (or purposefully hide) our stance, judgement and emotions messages. In characteristically human behaviour, we use language not only to communicate to specific audiences, but sometimes to address ourselves rather than others, as in self-talk, and other times to address collective, unknown audiences, as when we participate in political speeches, religious sermons, internet navigation, amazing feats in whatever language(s) they happen to grow up with. But many people around the globe also do many of the same things in a language other than their own. In fact, whether we grow up with one, two or several languages, in most cases we will learn additional languages later in life. Many people will learn at least a few words and phrases in a foreign language. Many others will be forced by life circumstances to learn enough of the additional language to fend for themselves in selected matters of daily survival, compulsory education or job-related communication. Others still will choose to develop entire communication repertoires and use literary or scientific discourses comfortably and with authority in their second language or languages. Indeed, many people around the globe may learn, forget and even relearn a number of languages that are not their mother tongue over the course of their late childhood, adolescence and adulthood. The details of people"s L2 learning histories can vary greatly, depending on where their studies, their families, their jobs and careers, and wider economic and political This is the fundamental question that we will explore in this book.

1.1WHAT IS SLA?

Second language acquisition (SLA, for short) is the scholarly field of inquiry that investigates the human capacity to learn languages other than the first, during late 1

2Introduction

contribute to the puzzling range of possible outcomes when learning an additional language in a variety of contexts. SLA began in the late 1960s as an emerging interdisciplinary enterprise that borrowed equally from the feeder “elds of language teaching, linguistics, child language acquisition and psychology and methodology, to the point that by the end of the twentieth century, after some

40 years of exponential growth, it had “nally reached its coming of age as an

prodigious today. This book is about SLA, its “ndings and theories, its research paradigms and its questions for the future. In this “rst chapter I have three goals. First, I situate SLA in the wider landscape then present de“nitions of the main terms I will use throughout the text. Finally, I explain the rationale for the rest of the book.

1.2WHENCE LANGUAGE? DESCRIPTION, EVOLUTION AND ACQUISITION

How can language as a human faculty be explained? This fundamental question language: descriptive, evolutionary and developmental. A number of disciplines within the language sciences aim to provide an accurate and completedescriptionof language at all its levels, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), minimal grammatical signs (morphology), sentences (syntax), meanings (semantics), texts (discourse analysis) and language in use (sociolinguistics, pragmatics). The overarching question guiding these sub“elds of linguistics is: What is language made of, and how does it work? Human language manifests itself in spoken, signed and written systems across more than 6,500 languages documented to date (they are catalogued inEthnologue; see Gordon,

2005). Despite this daunting linguistic variety, however, all languages, no matter

how different from each other they may seem (Arabic from American Sign Language from Chinese from English from Spanish from Swahili), share fundamental commonalities, a universal core of very abstract properties. Thus, linguistics and its various sub“elds aim at generating satisfactory descriptions of each manifestation of human language and they also seek to describe the universal common denominators that all human languages share. orhow, butwhenceandwhyquestions: Whence in the evolution of the human species did language originate and why? This is the line of inquiry pursued in the study of languageevolution, which focuses on the phylogenesis or origins of language. A fundamental area of research for cognitive scientists who study language evolved out of animal communication in an evolutionary continuum or

First language acquisition, bilingualism and SLA3

Tallerman, 2005). It is well known that other animal species are capable of using elaborate systems of communication to go about collective matters of survival, nutrition and reproduction. The cases of species as different as bees, dolphins and prairie dogs are well researched. However, none of these species has created a symbolic system of communication that even minimally approaches the complexity and versatility of human language. Chimpanzees, however, possess a genetic structure that overlaps 99 per cent with that ofHomo Sapiens. Although they do not have a larynx that is “t for human language or hands that could be physically modulated for signing, some of these animals have been taught how to communicate with humans through a rudimentary gesture-based language and through computer keyboards. Bonobos, if reared by humans, as was the case of year-old human and develop human-like lexical knowledge (Lyn and Savage- Rumbaugh, 2000). The conclusion that apes can develop true syntactic knowledge remains considerably more controversial, however. As you can guess, language evolution is a fascinating area that has the potential to illuminate the most fundamental questions about language. For a full understanding of the human language faculty, we also need to engage individual of our species? This is the realm of three “elds that focus on languagequotesdbs_dbs10.pdfusesText_16

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