Effective C++: 55 Specific Ways to Improve Your Programs and
“Scott Meyers’ book Effective C++ Third Edition is distilled programming experience — experience that you would otherwise have to learn the hard way This book is a great resource that I recommend to everybody who writes C++ professionally ” — Peter Dulimov ME Engineer Ranges and Assessing Unit NAVSYSCOM Australia “The third edition is stil
What is effective C++?
The first two editions of Effective C++ were embraced by hundreds of thousands of programmers worldwide. The reason is clear: Scott Meyers’ practical approach to C++ describes the rules of thumb used by the experts ― the things they almost always do or almost always avoid doing ― to produce clear, correct, efficient code.
Praise for Effective C++, Third Edition
“Scott Meyers’ book, Effective C++, Third Edition, is distilled programming experience — experience that you would otherwise have to learn the hard way. This book is a great resource that I recommend to everybody who writes C++ professionally.” — Peter Dulimov, ME, Engineer, Ranges and Assessing Unit, NAVSYSCOM, Australia “The third edition is stil
Brian W. Kernighan, Consulting Editor
Matthew H. Austern, Generic Programming and the STL: Using and Extending the C++ Standard Template Library David R. Butenhof, Programming with POSIX® Threads Brent Callaghan, NFS Illustrated Tom Cargill, C++ Programming Style William R. Cheswick/Steven M. Bellovin/Aviel D. Rubin, Firewalls and Internet Security, Second Edition: Repelling the Wily H
For Nancy, without whom nothing would be much worth doing
Wisdom and beauty form a very rare combination. — Petronius Arbiter Satyricon, XCIV
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Effective C++
Acknowledgments xix Antoine Trux, John Wait, Brian Sharon, Liam Fitzpatrick, Bernd Mohr, Gary Yee, John O'Hanley, Brady Patterson, Christopher Peterson, Feliks Kluzniak, Isi Dunietz, Christopher Creutzi, Ian Cooper, Carl Harris, Mark Stickel, Clay Budin, Panayotis Matsinopoulos, David Smallberg, Herb Sutter, Pajo Misljencevic, Giulio Agostini, Fred
Introduction
Learning the fundamentals of a programming language is one thing; learning how to design and implement effective programs in that lan-guage is something else entirely. This is especially true of C++, a lan-guage boasting an uncommon range of power and expressiveness. Properly used, C++ can be a joy to work with. An enormous variety of designs can b
Terminology
There is a small C++ vocabulary that every programmer should under-stand. The following terms are important enough that it is worth mak-ing sure we agree on what they mean. A declaration tells compilers about the name and type of something, but it omits certain details. These are declarations: extern int x; // object declaration std::size_t numDigi
Item 20.)
The STL is the Standard Template Library, the part of C++’s standard library devoted to containers (e.g., vector, list, set, map, etc.), iterators (e.g., vector ::iterator, set ::iterator, etc.), algorithms (e.g., for_each, find, sort, etc.), and related functionality. Much of that related functionality has to do with function objects: o
Naming Conventions
have tried to select meaningful names for objects, classes, functions, templates, etc., but the meanings behind some of my names may not be immediately apparent. Two of my favorite parameter names, for example, are lhs and rhs. They stand for “left-hand side” and “right-hand side,” respectively. I often use them as parameter names for functions imp
Threading Considerations
As a language, C++ has no notion of threads — no notion of concur-rency of any kind, in fact. Ditto for C++’s standard library. As far as C++ is concerned, multithreaded programs don’t exist. And yet they do. My focus in this book is on standard, portable C++, but I can’t ignore the fact that thread safety is an issue many pro-grammers confront. My
Things to Remember
Destructors should never emit exceptions. If functions called in a ✦ destructor may throw, the destructor should catch any exceptions, then swallow them or terminate the program. If class clients need to be able to react to exceptions thrown during ✦ an operation, the class should provide a regular (i.e., non-destruc-tor) function that performs the
Never call virtual functions during construction or destruction.
I’ll begin with the recap: you shouldn’t call virtual functions during construction or destruction, because the calls won’t do what you think, and if they did, you’d still be unhappy. If you’re a recovering Java or C# programmer, pay close attention to this Item, because this is a place where those languages zig, while C++ zags. Suppose you’ve got
operator=
Transaction::Transaction() {
BuyTransaction b;
Clearly a BuyTransaction constructor will be called, but first, a Transac-tion constructor must be called; base class parts of derived class objects are constructed before derived class parts are. The last line of the Transaction constructor calls the virtual function logTransaction, but this is where the surprise comes in. The version of logTransa
x = y = z = 15;
// chain of assignments Also interesting is that assignment is right-associative, so the above assignment chain is parsed like this:
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Things to Remember
Postpone variable definitions as long as possible. It increases pro-✦ gram clarity and improves program efficiency.
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Item 27: Minimize casting.
The rules of C++ are designed to guarantee that type errors are impos-sible. In theory, if your program compiles cleanly, it’s not trying to perform any unsafe or nonsensical operations on any objects. This is a valuable guarantee. You don’t want to forgo it lightly. Unfortunately, casts subvert the type system. That can lead to all kinds of troubl
T(expression) // cast expression to be of type T
There is no difference in meaning between these forms; it’s purely a matter of where you put the parentheses. I call these two forms old-style casts. C++ also offers four new cast forms (often called new-style or C++-style casts): const_cast (expression) dynamic_cast (expression) reinterpret_cast (expression) static_cast (expression) Each s
Things to Remember
Avoid casts whenever practical, especially dynamic_casts in perfor-✦ mance-sensitive code. If a design requires casting, try to develop a cast-free alternative. When casting is necessary, try to hide it inside a function. Clients ✦ can then call the function instead of putting casts in their own code. Prefer C++-style casts to old-style casts. They
Item 47: Use traits classes for information about types.
The STL is primarily made up of templates for containers, iterators, and algorithms, but it also has a few utility templates. One of these is called advance. advance moves a specified iterator a specified distance: template // move iter d units void advance(IterT& iter, DistT d); // forward; if d < 0, // move iter ba
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