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Brief Introduction to Prolog

Prolog is a language that is useful for doing symbolic and logic-based computation It‟s declarative: very different from imperative style programming like Java C++ Python A program is partly like a database but much more powerful since we can also have general rules to infer new facts!

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Logic Programming with Prolog

used is Prolog The name stands for Programming in Logic This book teaches the techniques of Logic Programming through the Prolog language Prolog is based on research by computer scientists in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s notably at the Universities of Marseilles London and Edinburgh The first implementation was at

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Programming in Prolog

returning to Programming in Prolog to ﬁll in anygaps in understanding Clause and Effect also conforms to ISO Standard Prolog and it may be beneﬁcial to use the reference manual Prolog: TheStandard in conjunction with this book Detailsof these books are: Clause and Effect by W F Clocksin Springer-Verlag 1997

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Prolog Programming

Prolog to be able to pursue any undergraduate course which makes use of Prolog This is a rather ambitious undertaking for a course of only twelve lectures so the lectures are supplemented with exercises and small practical projects wherever possible The Prolog implementation used is SICStus Prolog which is closely mod-

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Prolog: Programming in Logic

Dec 15 1985 · Prolog is a logic programming language that is widely used in artificial intelligence and natural language processing In this lecture Jason Eisner a professor of computer science at Johns Hopkins University introduces the basic concepts and syntax of Prolog and shows how to use it to solve various problems The lecture slides are available in PDF format and cover topics such as facts

What is Prolog programming language?
Chapter 1 The Basics Prolog (programming in logic) is one of the classical programming languages developed specically for applications in AI. As opposed to imperative languages such as C or Java (the latter of which also happens to be object-oriented) it is a declarative programming language.
How do I write a Prolog interpreter?
7. An interpreter for Prolog clauses can be written in Prolog (see Section 7.13). Write an interpreter that implements different semantics for Prolog execution, such as more flexible execution order (instead of left-to-right), perhaps using an “agenda” or other scheduling mechanism. 8.
What is Prolog grammar rule?
Essentially, the Prolog Grammar Rule formulation is syntactic sugaring. This means that Prolog enables you to write in: --> noun phrase, verb phrase. sentence(S,S0):-noun phrase(S,S1), verb phrase(S1,S0). --> [young]. into adjective(A,A0):-’C’(A,young,A0). ’C’([H|T],H,T). and not as sentence.
How does Prolog structure data?
Prolog provides ways to structure data as well as ways to structure the order in which attempts are made to satisfy goals. Structuring data involves knowing the syntax by which we can denote data. Structuring the order in which goals are solved involves knowing about backtracking.

The Basics

Prolog (programming in logic) is one of the classical programming languages developed speci cally for applications in AI. As opposed to imperative languages such as C or Java (the latter of which also happens to be object-oriented) it is a declarative programming language. This means that, when you implement the solution to a problem, instead of sp

1.1 Getting Started: An Example

In the introduction it has been said that Prolog is a declarative (or descriptive) language. Programming in Prolog means describing the world. Using such programs means asking Prolog questions about the previously described world. The simplest way of describing the world is by stating facts, like this one: 1 bigger(elephant, horse). This states, qu

X = horse

Horses are bigger than donkeys. The query has succeeded, but in order to allow it to succeed Prolog had to instantiate the variable X with the value horse. If this makes us happy already, we can press Return now and that's it. In case we want to nd out if there are more animals that are bigger than the donkey, we can press the semicolon key, which

1.2 Prolog Syntax

This section describes the most basic features of the Prolog programming language. staff.fnwi.uva.nl

1.2.2 Clauses, Programs and Queries

In the introductory example we have already seen how Prolog programs are made up of facts and rules. Facts and rules are also called clauses. They are used to de ne predicates. For example, in our introductory example we de ned the predicate bigger by means of ve facts and the predicate is_bigger by means of two rules. staff.fnwi.uva.nl

Facts.

A fact is a predicate followed by a full stop. Examples: bigger(whale, _). life_is_beautiful. The intuitive meaning of a fact is that we de ne a certain instance of a relation as being true. Rules. A rule consists of a head (a predicate) and a body (a sequence of predicates separated by commas). Head and body are separated by the symbol :- and, lik

Programs.

A Prolog program is a sequence of clauses. Queries. After compilation, a Prolog program is run by submitting queries to the interpreter. A query has the same structure as the body of a rule, i.e., it is a sequence of predicates separated by commas and terminated by a full stop. They can be entered at the Prolog prompt, which in most implementations

1.2.3 Some Built-in Predicates

What we have seen so far is already enough to write simple programs by de ning pred-icates in terms of facts and rules, but Prolog also provides a range of useful built-in predicates. Some of them will be introduced in this section; all of them should be ex-plained in the user manual of your Prolog system. Built-ins can be used in a similar way as

X = f(mouse) Yes

The last query succeeds, because the variable X is bound to the compound term f(mouse) at the time the subgoal compound(X) is being executed. Help. Most Prolog systems also provide a help function in the shape of a predicate, usually called help/1. Applied to a term (like the name of a built-in predicate) the system will display a short description

1.3 Answering Queries

We have mentioned the issue of term matching before in these notes. This concept is crucial to the way Prolog replies to queries, so we present it before describing what actually happens when a query is processed (or more generally speaking: when a goal is executed). staff.fnwi.uva.nl

1.3.1 Matching

Two terms are said to match if they are either identical or if they can be made identical by means of variable instantiation. Instantiating a variable means assigning it a xed value. Two free variables also match, because they could be instantiated with the same ground term. It is important to note that the same variable has to be instantiated with

Y = 2 Yes

Another example for matching: ?- f(a, g(X, Y)) = f(X, Z), Z = g(W, h(X)). = a = h(a) Z = g(a, h(a)) staff.fnwi.uva.nl

1.3.2 Goal Execution

Submitting a query means asking Prolog to try to prove that the statement(s) implied by the query can be made true provided the right variable instantiations are made. The search for such a proof is usually referred to as goal execution. Each predicate in the query constitutes a (sub)goal, which Prolog tries to satisfy one after the other. If varia

1.4 A Matter of Style

One of the major advantages of Prolog is that it allows for writing very short and compact programs solving not only comparatively di cult problems, but also being readable and (again: comparatively) easy to understand. Of course, this can only work, if the programmer (you) pays some attention to his or her programming style. As with every program

Exercise 1.3.

Draw the family tree corresponding to the following Prolog program: female(mary). female(sandra). female(juliet). female(lisa). male(peter). male(paul). male(dick). male(bob). male(harry). parent(bob, lisa). parent(bob, paul). parent(bob, mary). parent(juliet, lisa). parent(juliet, paul). parent(juliet, mary). parent(peter, harry). parent(lisa, har

No

Recall that the No at the end means that there are no further alternative solutions. staff.fnwi.uva.nl

Working with Numbers

If you've tried to use numbers in Prolog before, you might have encountered some unex-pected behaviour of the system. The rst part of this chapter clari es this phenomenon. After that an overview of the arithmetic operators available in Prolog is given. staff.fnwi.uva.nl

3.2 Prede ned Arithmetic Functions and Relations

The arithmetic operators available in Prolog can be divided into functions and relations. Some of them are presented here; for an extensive list consult your Prolog reference manual. Functions. Addition or multiplication are examples for arithmetic functions. In Prolog all these functions are written in the natural way. The following term shows som

Working with Operators

In the chapter on arithmetic expressions we have already seen some operators. Several of the predicates associated with arithmetic operations are also prede ned operators. This chapter explains how to de ne your own operators, which can then be used instead of normal predicates. staff.fnwi.uva.nl

?- ThirdFormula = (a or b) and c. ThirdFormula = (a or b)and c Yes

Exercise 4.4. A formula of propositional logic (involving only negation, conjunction, and disjunction, but not, e.g., implication) is said to be in negation normal form (NNF) if it is the case that every subformula that is negated is a negative literal (i.e., the negation of an atomic proposition). That is, for example, (p_:q)^:r is in NNF, while p

CNF = (p or r) and (p or s) and (q or r) and (q or s) Yes

Hints: For this kind of problem, it is tempting to de ne lots of redundant cases, resulting in a messy program. So try to be concise and systematic in your presentation, and only include rules that are actually required. It's a good idea to rst implement a predicate to eliminate any occurrences of implies and iff from the input formula. Note: You c

Backtracking, Cuts and Negation

In this chapter you will learn a bit more about how Prolog resolves queries. Then we are going to introduce a control mechanism (cuts) that allows for more e cient implementations and we are going to discuss the closely related topic of negation. staff.fnwi.uva.nl

5.1 Backtracking and Cuts

In Chapter 1 the term \\backtracking" has been mentioned already. Next, we are going to examine backtracking in some more detail, note some of its useful applications as well as problems, and discuss a way of overcoming such problems (by using so-called cuts). staff.fnwi.uva.nl

5.1.1 Backtracking Revisited

During proof search, Prolog keeps track of choicepoints, i.e., situations where there is more than one possible match. Whenever the chosen path ultimately turns out to be a failure (or if the user asks for alternative solutions), the system can jump back to the last choicepoint and try the next alternative. This is process is known as backtracking

5.1.2 Problems with Backtracking

There are cases, however, were backtracking is not desirable. Consider, for example, the following de nition of the predicate remove_duplicates/2 to remove duplicate elements from a given list. remove_duplicates([], []). remove_duplicates([Head Tail], Result) :-member(Head, Tail), remove_duplicates(Tail, Result). remove_duplicates([Head Tail],

No

That is, Prolog not only generates the correct solution, but also all other lists we get by keeping some of the elements that should have been deleted. To solve this problem we need a way of telling Prolog that, even when the user (or another predicate calling remove_duplicates/2) requests further solutions, there are no such alternatives and the g

5.1.3 Introducing Cuts

In SWI-Prolog (and most other Prolog systems) it is possible to debug your Prolog programs. This might help you to understand better how queries are resolved (it might however just be really confusing). This is a matter of taste. Use spy/1 to put a spypoint on a predicate (typed into the interpreter as a query, after compilation). Example: ?- spy(l

PDF	PREMIERS PAS EN PROLOG Clocksin Mellish

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Introduction to Prolog Programming - Universiteit van Amsterdam

Prolog (programming in logic) is one of the classical programming languages developed speci cally for applications in AI As opposed to imperative languages such as C or Java (the latter of which also happens to be object-oriented) it is a declarative programming language

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Prolog Language - riptutorialcom

Prolog is a language that is useful for doing symbolic and logic-based computation It?s declarative: very different from imperative style programming like Java C++ Python A program is partly like a database but much more powerful since we can also have general rulesto infer new facts!

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Prolog Language - riptutorialcom

You can share this PDF with anyone you feel could benefit from it downloaded the latest version from: prolog-language It is an unofficial and free Prolog Language ebook created for educational purposes All the content is extracted from Stack Overflow Documentation which is written by many hardworking individuals at Stack Overflow

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Prolog Step-by-Step - School of Informatics University of

Prolog is a high-level logic programming language (PROgramming in LOGic); Good at pattern matching (by uni?cation) and searching; Not very good for repetitive number crunching; Excellent for language processing rule-based expert systems planning and other AI applications;

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Searches related to langage prolog pdf PDF

Prolog is known to be a di?cult language to master It does not have the familiar control primitives used by languages like RATFOR ALGOL and PASCAL so the system does not give too much help to the programmer to employ structured programming concepts Also many programmers have become used to strongly typed languages

What is the Prolog language PDF?

You can share this PDF with anyone you feel could benefit from it, downloaded the latest version from: prolog-language It is an unofficial and free Prolog Language ebook created for educational purposes. All the content is extracted from Stack Overflow Documentation, which is written by many hardworking individuals at Stack Overflow.

What are some examples of problems with Prolog?

The Prolog you are using will load all clauses that parse as correct and throw away any ones that do not parse. Some example problems: the ?rst is where we have typed a ‘,’ instead of a ‘.’. a:- a:- b, b, c, is read as c, d:- d:-e. e. There are problems with this reading which will be reported by Prolog.

What is the syntax for multimangle in Prolog?

However, some modern Prologs go further and offer a custom syntax for this type of predicate. For example, in Visual Prolog: mangle(X) = Y :- Y = ((X*5)+2). multimangle(X,Y) :- Y = mangle(mangle(mangle(X))).

How to parse Prolog?

This is done through the idea of a parse tree as applied to a simple model for the construction of English sentences. Three ways of parsing Prolog are described: the ?rst illustrates the ideas, the second is more e?cient and the third provides an easy way of coding a parser viaGrammar Rules.

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Comment va répondre un programme Prolog ?

b. La dénotation d'un programme Prolog P est l'ensemble des atomes logiques qui sont des conséquences logiques de P.
. Ainsi, la réponse de Prolog à une question est l'ensemble des instances de cette question qui font partie de la dénotation.

Qui utilise Prolog ?

Prolog est utilisé en intelligence artificielle et dans le traitement linguistique par ordinateur (principalement langues naturelles).
. Ses règles de syntaxe et sa sémantique sont simples et considérées comme claires (un des objectifs poursuivis était de procurer un outil aux linguistes ignorant l'informatique).

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