https://www.coreknowledge.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/G5_U2_Teacher-Guide.pdf
Most of the surviving examples come from the Mexica of Tenochtitlan rulers of the Aztec empire; as a result we have far more information about the history of
The resulting flow of publications relat- ing to late Central Mexican culture and political economy has increased steadily over the last fifteen years and the
This unit will point out similarities between Aztec mythology and other world mythologies. From the Aztecs' creation myth and its variations to the long
is evidence that she was a fairly prosperous member of the Aztec culture given her role as the one who helped bring new life into the.
Religion was a very important part of Aztec culture. They worshipped a great number of gods and goddesses. They believed there was a.
KEY WORDS: Aztecs; archaeology; Mexico; Postclassic. INTRODUCTION. Aztec culture's central role in Postclassic Mesoamerica is documented by painted codices
The Aztecs had a rulership similar to a monarchy they called the primary ruler Huey Tlatoani. ? The Aztec ruler Montezuma
The Ancient Word: Rhetoric in Aztec Culture ernadino de Sahagun the foremost chronicler of six- teenth-century Mexico
27-Jun-2019 Aztec civilization had and continues to have on modern-day Mexico City. 3 John Ross and Gregory Gransden. Mexico in Focus 2nd Edition (Latin ...
The Aztec empire was located in Culhua-Mexica, which is now modern day The Aztec civilization traded cloths, pottery, baskets, jewels, tools, and stone
The Aztec empire is often the first thing people think of when they talk about Mexico other name for the Aztecs which calculations, writing, history, literature,
in Mesoamerica, the Aztecs adopted many Aztec civilization was destroyed at its height by the invasion of Spanish The roots of Aztec civilization go back
cific themes, following a chronology from theorigins of Aztec civilization to the time the art and culture of this final chapter of Mesoamerican history, the basis for
Tenochtitlán was the capital of the Aztec Empire It was built on an island in the middle of a lake The Aztecs built causeways, or raised roads across water or wet
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736_5guggenheim_pub_the_aztec_empire_2004.pdf rr m UMir
Pub'eoccasionoftheexhibition
TheAztecEmpire
redbyFelipeSolis
SolomonR.GuggenheimMuseum,NewYork
October15,2004-February13,2005
TheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumgratefullyacknowledgesthe assstanceofCONACULTA-INAHinorganizingtheloansfromMexico.
4ACONACULTA*INAH^
ThisexhibitionisorganizedbytheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumin collaborationwiththeConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtes(CONACULTA) ititutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria(INAH).
Majorsponsorsofthisexhibitionare
©Banamex_S^=
Citigroup,~^~~~
Televisa
Additionalsupportprovidedby
j^ucvirn PEMEX Thisexhibitionhasalsobeenmadepossibleinpartbyanindemnityfromthe FederalCouncilontheArtsandtheHumanities,togetherwiththegenerous supportoftheLeadershipCommitteeforTheAztecEmpire,GRUMA,ALFA, andConEdison.
Transportationassistanceprovidedbyaeromexico
MediasupportprovidedbyThirteen/WNET.
SpecialthankstotheEmbassyofMexicointheU.S.,theEmbassyofthe UnitedStatesinMexico,andtheConsulateGeneralofMexicoinNewYork.
TheAztecEmpire
e2004InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria/CONACULTA.
14TheSolomonR.GuggenheimFoundation,NewYork.
Allrightsreserved.
ISBN321-7(hardcover)
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Contents
Introduction
26
FelipeSolis
ArtintheAztecEmpire
18
TracesofanIdentity
BeatrizdelaFuente
TheAztecsandtheNaturalWorld
56
TheBasinofMexicoasaHabitatforPre-HispanicFarmers
WilliamT.Sanders
70
TheHarmonybetweenPeopleandAnimalsintheAztecWorld
MercedesdelaGarza
TheAztecsandTheirAncestors
81
PrecolumbianManandHisCosmos
FelipeSolis
100
OriginsandFormsofArtintheAztecEmpire
FelipeSolis
lin
TheOlmec
AnnCyphers
Hi
Teotihuacan
LindaManzanillu
121
TulaandtheTolteca
\Diehl
ThejemploMayor
/;•
ExcavationsattheTemploMayor
EduardoMatosMoctezuma
/16
TheTemploMayoratTenochtitlan
JuanAlbertoRomanBerrelleza
280
ThePueblaandTlaxcalaValleys
VeronicaVelasquez
AztecReligion
168
AztecReligion:Creation,Sacrifice,andRenewal
KarlTaube
178
AxisMundi
RobertoVelascoAlonso
194
GodsandRituals
GuilhemOlivier
212
PaintedBooksandCalendars
ElizabethHillBoone
284
TheDomainofCoatlalpan
JoseLuisRojasMartinez
288
TheMixteca
NellyM.RoblesGarcia
300
TheHuaxtecaandtheTotonaca
FelipeSolis
TheTaraseanEmpire
310
TheTaraseanEmpire
PhilC.Weigand
AztecSociety
222
NoblesandCommoners
MichaelE.Smith
230
EverydayLifeinTenochtitlan
MichaelE.Smith
TaraseanArt
RobertoVelascoAlonso
TheFalloftheEmpires
33i
TheConquestasSeenbytheMexica-Aztecs
MiguelLeon-Portilla
TheAztecEmpire
250
TheAztecEmpire
RichardFJownsend
264
TheProvincesoftheAztecEmpire
FrancesF.Berdan
270
ThePopulationoftheMexicoandTolucaValleys
PerlaVallePerez
312
TheSpanishConquestofTenochtitlan
PabloEscalanteGonzolbo
CatalogueChecklist
351
Bibliographym
Preface
THEVISUALNARRATIVEUNFOLDINGBEFOREVISITORSTOTHEEXHIBITIONTHEAZTECEMPIREEXPOSESSOMEOFTHE hiddenrecessesofanessentiallyreligiousandmilitaryculturethatlivedinsplendoranddis- appearedtragically.Inlessthanonehundredyears,theAztecsmanagedtoerectaunique empirefromavastlystratifiedsociety,aswellastocreateastricteducationalsystemand solidagriculturaleconomy.Theyformedstrategicmilitaryalliances,conquereddomainsnear andfar,imposedaharshtributarysystem,andestablishedanintricatenetworkoftradeand commerce.PerhapsevenmorenoteworthywasthelevelofaestheticexcellencetheAztecs achievedinstone,feather,andmetalwork,inceramics,architecture,chronicles,andpoetic utterances-tomentiononlysomeoftheskillsthatformedthe"vitalenergy"impregnating theirlife,asthecriticPaulWestheimhaswritten. Nourishedbytheculturallegacyoftheirpredecessors,suchastheOlmec,Teotihuacan, andToltecpeoples;imbuedwiththewisdomculledfromsubjugatedprovinces;andinflu- encedbythecraftsmanshipofthefewpeopleswhodefiedthemandmaintainedtheir independence,suchasthePurepecha(Tarascans),theAztecsexcelledinawiderangeofdis- ciplines.Reflectingacloserelationshipwithnatureandthegodsofavastpantheon,these disciplinesincludedobservationofthecelestialbodies;botanyandherbalmedicine;mathe- maticsandpictographicwriting;monumentalarchitectureandart.Thecomprehensiveness oftheexhibitionenrichesourunderstandingofthisextraordinaryMesoamericancivilization, whosevenerationofthesunfloodedsacrificialstoneswiththebloodofitsvictims.Instark contrast,thosewhocarvedtheseverystoneswouldrefertofriendsas"perfumedflowers." IthasbeenagreathonorfortheConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtesandthe InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoriatocollaboratewiththeGuggenheim.Thepres- entationofextraordinaryarcheologicalobjectsandmasterpiecesofthepre-Hispanicworld attheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseuminNewYorkprovidesaninvaluabletoolforgaining agreaterappreciationoftheculturallegacythatisasourceofprideforallMexicans. Whenconsideringtheworksonview,itiseasytoconcurwithHenryMoore,therenowned Britishsculptorofuniversalresonance,whospokeofMexicanstonesculpture's"truthto material,itstremendouspowerwithoutlossofsensitiveness...itsapproachtoafullthree- dimensionalconceptionofform."Thedawningofthesixteenthcenturybroughtwithitthe falloftheAztecs,buttheirbrilliantandpowerfulcreationsremainandwill,toparaphrase Westheim,proveimpervioustotimeandthenotionsofspaceandsubjectmatter.Theirsongs stillresonate-theremainsoftheTemploMayor,thefragments,manycolossalinscale,of anartwhosedisquietingbeautyfilledtheteeminghorizonofanempirethatdominated
CentralMexico.
SariBermudez
President,ConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtes(CONACULTA)
Preface
MYTH,ASTERRITORYOFTHEHUMANCONDITION,ISUNDOUBTEDLYTHEMOSTEFFECTIVEMEANSFOREXPRESSING theuniquenatureofaculture.Althoughitmayseemtorepeatcertainuniversaltypesand forms,mythestablishesthedistinctionsandboundariesbetweenselfandother.Itistheplace wherehistoricandsocialidentitiesareconstructed,wheretheimaginationrecastslifein symbolicdimensions. Mythicnarrativeexplainsgeographiesandtimes;pointstoorigins,impulses,andeven timelesspreoccupations;providesalifesourceforliteratureandinnumerablesignsandsym- bolsforthecreativeworksofacommunity;aswellasindicating-throughdeities,other beings,andaspecializedvocabularyofrepresentations-therealmwheresacredandprofane intersect.Imaginedpersonalandcollectivedestiniesimbuehistorywithmeaning.Immediate frontiersbetweenmythandrealityevaporate. MythisthemostsalientindicatorofthelifeanddeathoftheAztecworld,thefinalchap- terinancientMexicanhistory.Itprovidedthesubstancefortheprimordialcovenantbetween thewarandsungodHuitzilopochtliandhispeople,whichwasestablishedattheoutsetofa longpilgrimagetothelandthatwouldbecomethenaveloftheworldandbringforth,begin- ninginthefourteenthcentury,theunforgettablegrandeurofTenochtitlan.Anditexplains theimpulsethatledtheAztecs,intheirprecipitouspathtowardempire,toconquernumer- ouspeoplesoverthespanofmeredecades.Thissamemythology,whichhadjustifiedpoliti- calattitudesandmilitarycampaigns,inevitablyunderlaytheterrortheAztecshadof thereturnofQuetzalcoatl,thedeitytheyfatallysupposedwasincarnatedintheformofthe conquistadors. Asasignofveneration,thesunwastobeprovidedwiththesacredfoodofblood,thus ensuringthecelestialbeing'sdominanceoverthenocturnalelementsandcontinuityinits dailycourse.Notwithoutdrama,theAztecs'fulfillmentoftheirdestinytooktheformof hegemonyindealingwithotherhumansandgratitudetowardthedivinities.Aztecreligiosity, originallyaprincipleforsocialcohesion,alsoprovidedtheoutlinesforanextraordinarily originalaesthetic.Mostcompellinglyevidencedinthearchitectureandurbanplanningofthe finalpre-Hispaniccentury,thisaestheticalsoledtoaflourishingintheartsandprofessions devotedtoworkingwithstone,ceramics,cotton,animalskins,paper,andfeathers. Conceivedwithinaframeworkthatisbothaestheticand-archeological,TheAztecEmpire isspecificallydirectedtothesensibilitiesofNewYork'smuseum-goingpublic.Intermsofthe numberandqualityofthepiecesincluded-mostofwhicharefromthecollectionsofthe InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria-thisexhibitionmarksamilestoneintheinter- nationalexhibitionsofpre-Hispanicartpresentedovertheyears.Itisorganizedaroundspe- cificthemes,followingachronologyfromtheoriginsofAzteccivilizationtothetimeoffirst contactwiththeEuropeanworld. Themysteriousinterplaybetweentheobjectsandmodernperceptionsimbuesthemwith 'anunsettlingbeauty.Theawearousedbythisimperialartisasignofitstimelessandprimal power.Inthissense,theAztecsareourowncontemporaries.
SergioRaulArroyo
DirectorGeneral,InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria(INAH)
©Banamex_Citigroup*
BANAMEXISVERYPROUDTOPARTICIPATEASAMAJORSPONSOROFTHEAZTECEMPIREEXHIBITION,THEMOST comprehensivesurveyoftheartandcultureoftheAztecseverassembledoutsideMexico. SinceBanamexwasfoundedin1884,itshistoryhasbeencloselyrelatedtothehistoryof Mexico.Butithasalwaysbeenmuchmorethanabank.Withtheconvictionthatbusinesses haveasocialresponsibility,Banamexhasparticipatedinmanyactivitiesthatgofarbeyond financialmatters.Throughtheprogramscarriedoutbyitscultural,social,andecological foundations,thebanksupportscultureandart,socialdevelopment,andtheconservationand protectionoftheenvironment. ThisyearBanamexcelebratesits120thanniversary-animportantachievementandalso anexcellentopportunitytoemphasizethebank'scommitmenttosupportingandpromoting Mexicanartandculture.Atthesametime,sponsoringthissuperbexhibitionatthe GuggenheimMuseuminNewYorkispartofanefforttobuildbridgesofmutualunder- standingbetweentwocountrieswhosehistoricalrelationshiphasbecomeincreasinglyclose ineconomicandsocialterms,especiallyduringthelastdecade. Banamex'sintegrationintoCitigroupbringsthebestoftheworldtoMexicoandallows takingthebestofMexicototherestoftheworld.Consequently,thebankisdelightedtosup- porttheSolomonR.GuggenheimFoundationinitspresentationinNewYorkofanunparal- leledexhibitionthatbringstogethermorethanfourhundredworksdrawnfrommajor collectionsintheUnitedStatesandMexico.
ManuelMedina-Mora
ChiefExecutiveOfficer
Televisa
TELEVISAPROUDLYSPONSORSTHEEXHIBITIONTHEAZTECEMPIREASPARTOFITSCOMMITMENTTOPROMOTING andsharingitsMexicanheritage. GrupoTelevisaisoneoftheworld'slargestSpanish-languagetelevisionproducers. Televisa'sproductionsarebroadcastonitsfournetworksinMexico.Muchofthisprogram- mingcontentreachesSpanish-speakingcommunitiesintheUnitedStatesthroughUnivision, andincountriesinLatinAmerica,Asia,Europe,andAfricathroughotherlicensingagree- ments.Televisaisalsoinvolvedinsatelliteandcabletelevision,theInternet,publishing, movies,radio,andliveentertainment. FundacionTelevisafocusesonenhancingthenutrition,health,andeducationofchildren, andpromotingvaluessuchashonesty,generosity,responsibility,andrespectthroughhigh- impactsocial-awarenesscampaigns.Televisa'sfoundationisalsocommittedtopreserving andpromotingMexico'sartisticheritage,aswellastogeneratingmoreinterchangesbetween ourcultureandotherculturesaroundtheglobe. ItisinthisveinthatwearepleasedtosupportTheAztecEmpire,agroundbreakingexhi- bitionattheGuggenheimMuseuminNewYorkthatwillshednewlightonamagnificent civilization.
EmilioAzcarragaJean
ChiefExecutiveOfficer
I \ ( ^ * i i t7^ f.W.f*
ProjectTeam
GuggenheimMuseum
ExecutiveStaff
asKrens,Director
LisaDennison,DeputyDirectoranc.'ator
Zainek,DeputyDirector.CommunicationsandPublishing
Cox,DeputyDirector,SpecialProjects
DaneSolomon,DeputyDirector,CorporateDevelopmentandGlobal
Marketing
MarcSteglitz,DeputyDirector.FinanceandOperations
sneralCounsel
ArtServicesandPreparations
ScottWixon,ManagerofArtServicesandPreparations
BarryHylton,SeniorExhibitionTechnician
DerekDeLuco,TechnicalSpecialist
MaryAnnHoag,LightingDesigner
Conservation
LeslieRansickGat,ProjectConservator
AmyJones,AssistantProjectConservator
EleonoraNagy,SculptureConservator
Construction
MichaelSarff,ConstructionManager
WilliamRagette,LeadCarpenter
Development
AnneBergeron,DirectorofInstitutionalandCapitalDevelopment
KendallHubert,DirectorofCorporateDevelopment
GinaRogak,DirectorofSpecialEvents
HelenWarwick,DirectorofIndividualDevelopment
PepiMarchettiFranchi,ExecutiveAssociate,Director'sOffice
DebbieAhn,ManagerofMembership
PenelopeBetts,ManagerofCorporateMembership
StephenDiefenderfer,SpecialEventsManager
HillaryStrong,ManagerofCorporateSponsorship
CeciliaWolfson,ManagerofIndividualGiving
BethAllen,CorporateDevelopmentAssociate
PeggyAllen,SpecialEventsCoordinator
JuliaBrown,MembershipCoordinator
PallaviYalamanchili,IndividualGivingCoordinator
AnnieDonohue,MembershipandIndividualGivingAssistant
GrahamGreen,Intern,Director'sOffice
Education
GailEngelbergDirectorofEducation
Pabk)ProgramManager,PublicPrograms
amManager,SchoolPrograms
ExhibitionDesign
Coordina'
ExhibitionManagement
Ma- iabriiation
RichardAvery,ChiefCabinetmaker
EdwardCunningham,Cabinetmaker
SamGreen,Cabinetmaker
DouglasHollingsworth,Cabinetmaker
ChristopherPowell,Cabinetmaker
RobertEbeltoft,MetalFabricator
ChristopherGeorge,MetalFabricator
JosephTaylor,MetalFabricator
Facilities
BrijAnand,DirectorofFacilities
IanA.Felmine,HouseElectrician
Finance
AmyWest,DirectorofFinance
ChristinaKallergis,BudgetandPlanningAnalyst
GraphicDesign
MarciaFardella,ChiefGraphicDesigner
CasseyChou,SeniorGraphicDesigner
ConcettaPereira,ProductionSupervisor
ChristineSullivan,GraphicDesigner
JaniceLee,GraphicDesigner
Legal
BrendanConnell,AssociateGeneralCounsel
Marketing
LauraMiller,DirectorofMarketing
AshleyPrymas,MarketingManager
Photography
DavidM.Heald,DirectorofPhotographicServicesandChief
Photographer
KimBush,ManagerofPhotographyandPermissions
PublicAffairs
AnnEdgarsAssociates
JenniferRusso,PublicAffairsCoordinator
Publications
ElizabethLevy,DirectorofPublications
ElizabethFranzen,ManagingEditor
MelissaSecondino,ProductionManager
LaraFieldbinder,ProductionAssistant
EdwardWeisberger,Editor
MeghanDailey,AssociateEditor
StephenHoban,AssistantEditor
KateNorment,ProjectEditor
LauraMorris,Ed
JenniferKnoxWhite,Editor
Registrar
MerylCohen,DirectorofRegistrationandArtServices
Lardner,A
iPaulaArmelin,Proji :
RetailDevelopmentandPurchasing
EdI nLeonca. i iopmentManager !
Security
i(itSecurity
VisitorServices
i MexicanCulturalInstitutionsEnriqueNorten(TENArquiteetos)+J.MeejinYoon
ConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtes(CONACULTA)
SariBermiidez,President
InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria(INAH)
SergioRaulArroyo,DirectorGeneral
MoisesRosas,TechnicalSecretary
LuisA.Haza,AdministrativeSecretary
JoseEnriqueOrtizLanz,NationalCoordinatorofMuseumsand
Exhibitions
MariadelPerpetuoSocorroVillarrealEscarrega,NationalCoordinator forLegalMatters GerardoJaramillo,NationalCoordinatorforCommunicationsand
Publishing
ElviraBaezGarcia,DirectorofInternationalExhibitions
MiguelAngelFernandez,ManagementConsultant
JacquelineCorrea,ProjectCoordinator
FelipeSolis,MuseoNacionaldeAntropologia
JuanAlbertoRomanBerrelleza,MuseodelTemploMayor
JacintoChacha-Antele,CentroINAHHidalgo
SergioRasgadoFlores,MuseoRegionaldeHidalgo"ExConventode SanFrancisco";MuseodeSitiodeTepeapulco;MuseoArqueologico deTula"JorgeR.Acosta"
EduardoLopezCalzada,CentroINAHOaxaca
JesusMartinezArvizu,MuseodelasCulturasdeOaxaca;Museo
FriselMitla
YolandaRamos,MuseoRegionaldePuebla
MaribelMiro,CentroINAHEstadodeMexico
LauraElenaMata,MuseodelasCulturasMexicas"EusebioDavalos" EugenioMercado,MuseoRegionalMichoacano"Dr.NicolasCalderon"
DanielGoeritz,CentroINAHVeracruz
VicenteHernandez,MuseoBaluartedeSantiago
MartelvaGomez,MuseoRegionaldeGuadalajara
MiguelFernandezFelix,MuseoNacionaldelVirreinato
MNenaKoprivitza,MuseoRegionaldeTlaxcala
ContributingInstitutions
ClaudioX.Gonzalez,MauricioMaille,DianaMogollon,Fundacion
CulturalTelevisa
CarolinaMonroydelMazo,InstitutoMexiquensedeCultura,Gobiernodel
EstadodeMexico
MartinAntonioMondragon,MuseoArqueologicodelEstado"Dr.Roman
PinaChan"
RamiroAcevedo,Centro,RegionalCulturalApaxco
BaltazarLopezMartinez,MuseoMunicipalArqueologicodeTuxpon CandidaFernandez,MariadelRefugioCardenas,FomentoCultural
Banamex,A.C.
RoxanaVelasquezMartinezdelCampo,MuseoNacionaldeArte MariaAscensionMorales,MuseoUniversitariodeGenciosyArte
EnriqueNorten
J.MeejinYoon
ClaraSola-MoralesSerra
TimMorshead
B.AlexMiller
ShujiSuzumori
CarlSolander
FernandaChandler
MarianadelaFuente
AngelaCo
Catalogue
LANDUCCI
EditorialCoordination
SandroLanducciLerdodeTejada
LucindaGutierrez
MarielRodriguezSanchez,Assistant
LuisGarcia,Assistant
AldoPlazola,Assistant
Design
ArturoChapa
Photography
MichelZabe
EnriqueMaciasMartinez,PhotographyAssistant
Prepress
ArturoChapa/Landucci
INAH
EditorialCoordination
FelipeSolis
RobertoVelascoAlonso
EditorialSupervision
GerardoJaramillo
LenderstotheExhibition
AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory,NewYork
BrooklynMuseum,NewYork
CentroINAHdelEstadodeMexico,Toluca
CentroRegionalCulturalApaxco
TheClevelandMuseumofArt
DumbartonOaksResearchLibraryandCollection,HarvardUniversity,
Washington,D.C
TheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistory,Chicago
FomentoCulturalBanamexA.C.,MexicoCity
FundacionCulturalTelevisa,MexicoCity
TheJohnCarterBrownLibraryatBrownUniversity,Providence
TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork
MuseoArqueologicodeTula"JorgeR.Acosta,"INAH
MuseoArqueologicodelEstado"Dr.RomanPinaChan,"Teotenango
MuseoBaluartedeSantiago,INAH,Veracruz
MuseodelasCulturasdeOaxaca,INAH
MuseodelasCulturasMexicas"EusebioDavalos,"INAH,Acatlan
MuseodeSitiodeTepeapulco,INAH
MuseodelTemploMayor,INAH,MexicoCity
MuseoMunicipalArqueologicodeTuxpan
MuseoNacionaldeAntropologia,INAH,MexicoCity
MuseoNacionaldeArte,MexicoCity
MuseoNacionaldelVirreinato,INAH,Tepotzotlan
MuseoRegionaldeGuadalajara,INAH
MuseoRegionaldeHidalgo"ExConventodeSanFrancisco,"INAH,
Pachuca
MuseoRegionaldePuebla,INAH
MuseoRegionaldeTlaxcala,INAH
MuseoRegionalMichoacano"Dr.NicolasCalderbn,"INAH,Morelia
MuseoUniversitariodeCienciasyArte,UNAM,MexicoCity
MuseumofArt,RhodeIslandSchoolofDesign,Providence
MuseumofFineArts,Boston
NationalMuseumoftheAmericanIndian,SmithsonianInstitution,
Washington,D.C.
PeabodyMuseumofArchaeologyandEthnology,HarvardUniversity,
Cambridge
PeabodyMuseumofNaturalHistory,YaleUniversity,NewHaven
PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt
PrincetonUniversityArtMuseum
SaintLouisArtMuseum
YaleUniversityArtGallery,NewHaven
16
TheSolomonR.Guggenheim
Foundation
TheLeadershipCommitteefor
TheAztecEmpire
HonoraryTrusteesinPerpetuity
SolomonR.Guggenheim
JustinK.Thannhauser
PeggyGuggenheim
HonoraryChairrnan
PeterLawson-Johnston
Chairman
PeterB.Lewis
Vice-Presidents
WendyL-J.McNeil
StephenC.Swid
JohnS.Wadsworth,Jr.
Director
ThomasKrens
Secretary
EdwardF.Rover
Trustees
JonImanolAzua
PeterM.Brant
MarySharpCronson
GailMayEngelberg
MartinD.Gruss
FrederickB.Henry
DavidH.Koch
ThomasKrens
PeterLawson-Johnston
PeterLawson-JohnstonII
PeterB.Lewis
HowardW.Lutnick
WilliamLMack
WendyL-J.McNeil
EdwardH.Meyer
Vladimir0.Potanin
FrederickW.Reid
StephenM.Ross
MortimerD.A.Sackler
DeniseSaul
TerrySemel
JamesB.Sherwood
RajaW.Sidawi
SeymourSlive
JenniferBleiStockman
StephenC.Swid
JohnS.Wadsworth,Jr.
MarkR.Walter
JohnWilmerding
HonoraryTrustee
ClaudePompidou
TrusteesExOfficio
DakisJoannou
DavidGallagher
DirectorEmeritus
ThomasM.Messer
HonoraryChair
HisExcellencyCarlosdeIcaza,AmbassadorofMexicotothe
UnitedStatesofAmerica
HonoraryCo-Chairs
SariBermudez,President,ConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtes SergioRaulArroyo,DirectorGeneral,InstitutoNacionalde
AntropologiaeHistoria
ArturoSarukhan,ConsulGeneralofMexicoinNewYork
FelipeSolis,Director,MuseoNacionaldeAntropologia,MexicoCity
EnriqueNorten,TENArquitectos
Members
EmilioAzcarragaJean
PlacidoandMartaDomingo
PosyFeick
Dr.AbrahamFranklinandGinaDiezBarrosodeFranklin
CarlosHankRhon
FernandoandMarinelaLerdodeTejada
JaimeLucero
ManuelMedina-Mora
RaulMuhozLeos
FedericoSadaG.
YolandaSantosGarza
JesusandHildegardSilva-Herzog
JulioC.Villarreal-Guajardo
LorenzoH.Zambrano
ListinformationasofAugust1,2004
•
Foreword
THEAZTECEMPIREREPRESENTSTHEMOSTEXTENSIVEANDHISTORICALLYACCURATESURVEYOFTHEARTAND cultureoftheAztecsandtheircontemporarieseverassembledoutsideMexico.TheAztecs, thenomadicculturethatdominatedCentralMexicoatthetimeoftheSpanishConquest, foundedTenochtitlan,modern-dayMexicoCity,in1325.Fearlesswarriorsandpragmatic builders,theycreatedavastempireduringthefifteenthcenturyandwerethemostdocu- mentedcultureintheAmericasatthetimeofEuropeancontactinthesixteenthcentury.This exhibitionpresentstheextraordinaryworksofartcreatedbytheAztecsaswellasbythepeo- plestheyconquered,andtheculturesthatprecededtheminMesoamerica. Thoughperhapsunexpected,thisprojectisnonethelessanaturalfitwithinthescopeof theGuggenheim'sglobalprogram.Ourinstitutionisprimarilydevotedtomodernandcon- temporaryvisualculture,butfromtimetotimewehavepresentedmajorexhibitions focusedonclassical,andevenancient,art.ExhibitionslikeAfrica:TheArtofaContinent (1996),China:5,000Years(1998),andBrazil:BodyandSoul(2001-02)havegivenusthe opportunitytoexploreabroadarrayofartistictraditions.Theyhavegreatlyexpandedthe visionoftheGuggenheim,providingintriguingcontrastswithourcontemporaryprogram- ming,whilealsoreflectingthecontextfromwhichtoday'sarthasemerged.TheAztec Empire,likeBrazil,exemplifiesaprofounddesirebytheGuggenheimtoexploretherichcul- turalnarrativesthathaveemergedfromLatinAmerica.AstheUnitedStatesandMexico developclosertieseconomically,theopportunityforculturalcommunicationincreasesand, infact,becomesincreasinglyimportant. TheAztecEmpirewasinspiredbyamajorexhibitionattheRoyalAcademyofArts,London, calledsimplyAztecs.WhenIvisitedtheshow,Iwascaptivatedbytheextraordinaryobjects onview,andinstantlythoughtthattheywouldbestunninginthecontextofthe Guggenheim'sFrankLloydWrightbuildinginNewYork.When,soonthereafter,ImetSari Bermudez,Mexico'scultureminister,wediscussedthepossibilityofanother,largershow devotedtotheAztecs.Itquicklybecameclearthattherewasonlyonepersonwhocouldserve ascuratorforsuchanimportantproject,FelipeSoli's,DirectoroftheMuseoNacionalde AntropologiainMexicoCity.Dr.Solis'sprojectfortheGuggenheimpresentationisambi- tious-toprovidenotonlyathoroughrepresentationofAztecsocietyatthezenithofthe empire,butalsotosuggestthecontextforitsdevelopment,expansion,andinfluence.This exhibitiontranscendsthestereotypicalportrayaloftheAztecsasfierceconquerorstopres- enttheirmanypositiveachievements. ThelargestandmostimportantsectionoftheexhibitionisdevotedtotheTemploMayor, theheartoftheAzteccultureandanactivearchaeologicalsiteinthecenterofMexicoCity. ExcavationsoftheTemploMayorthroughoutthetwentiethcentury,butespeciallysince
1978,haveyieldedarichandsignificanttroveofsculptures,reliefs,religiousartifacts,and
ceremonialobjects-someofwhichhaveneverbeenshowninMexicoandwillbeseenhere bythegeneralpublicforthefirsttime.TJnefinalsectionoftheexhibitionincludesobjectsand worksofartfromthetimeoftheEuropeanconquest,andreflectsthedestructionofAztec societyaswellastheappropriationandutilizationofitsartifacts,bothreligiousandsecular. Theexceptionalqualityofthisexhibitionreflectspersonalsupportandcooperationat thehighestlevelsoftheMexicangovernment.FrommyfirstconversationswithSari Bermudez,shehasprovenaninvaluablechampionoftheproject.TheAztecEmpireisorgan- izedwiththesupportoftheConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtes(CONACULTA)andthe InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria(INAH)ofMexico.InherpositionasPresidentof CONACULTA,Sarieffectivelymobilizedtheministryontheproject'sbehalf,andwearedeeply gratefultoherandherstafffortheirunfailingsupport.JaimeNualart,TechnicalSecretary andformerDirectorGeneralforInternationalAffairs,wasinstrumentalincoordinatingpre- liminarydiscussions,andhissuccessor,AlbertoFierro.DirectorGeneralforInternational Affairs,CONACULTA,continuedtoprovideencouragement.AtINAH,SergioRaulArroyo, DirectorGeneral,MoisesRosas,TechnicalSecretary,andJoseEnriqueOrtizLanz,National CoordinatorofMuseumsandExhibitions,haveprovidedvaluableassistanceandsupport.The administrativeorganizationoftheprojectatINAHwasthedirectresponsibilityofElviraBaez Garcia,DirectorofInternationalExhibitions,andJacquelineCorrea,ProjectCoordinator,and weareappreciativeoftheirconstantguidanceandcooperation.TheForeignMinistryalso supportedthisexhibitionthroughthegoodofficesoftheAmbassadorofMexicotothe UnitedStates,theHonorableCarlosdeIcaza,togetherwithCulturalAttacheAlejandro Negrin;wewouldliketoextendourgratitudefortheirsupport.Iextendmypersonalthanks totheHonorableArturoSarukhan,ConsulGeneralofMexicoinNewYork,whoprovided adviceandconsultationatimportantstagesoftheproject.WearegratefultoRodolfo ElizondoTorres,SecretaryofTourism,forhissteadfastsupportofthisproject.Ourgratitude alsogoestotheHonorableAnthonyGarzaJr.,U.S.AmbassadortoMexico,togetherwith JeffersonBrown,MinisterCounselorforPressandCulturalAffairs,MarjorieCoffin,Cultural Attache,andBerthaCeaEchenique,SeniorCulturalAffairsSpecialist,oftheU.S.Embassyin
MexicoCity,fortheirenthusiasmandconstantsupport.
TodesigntheexhibitioninNewYork,theGuggenheimhasenlistedthetalentsofEnrique Norten,founderandprincipalofTENArquitectos(TallerdeEnriqueNortenArquitectos),a firmthathasalteredthefaceofMexicoCity,aswellastheinternationalperceptionof Mexicanarchitecture,sinceitsfoundingin1985.NortenwasjoinedinthiseffortbyJ.Meejin Yoon,architect,designer,andeducator.ForTheAztecEmpire,thedesignersintroduceasin- glebolddesignelementintotheclassicwhitewallinteriorofFrankLloydWright'slandmark building:anundulatingribbonwallcoveredwithgraywoolfelt.Theserpentinewall,absorb- inglightandsound,rendersthespaceadeepandmuteenvironment.Asitbendsandpeels toaccommodatethevariousscalesofworkonview,thewallcreatesnewspatialexperiences alongtheramps.Byfocusingontheexperienceofperimeterandperiphery,asopposedto thecenter,theprojectaccommodatesthecuratorialthemesoftheexhibition,whileatthe sametimeprovidingasmoothandnonuniformsystemfordisplayingthearrayofartifacts selectedbyDr.Soli's.ThestaffofTENArquitectoshasbeentirelessintheirefforts,andpar- ticularthanksaredueClaraSola-MoralesSerrainNewYork. Theexceptionalcollaborativeexperienceoftheprojectextendsbeyondtheeffortsofthe curatortoincludethescholarshipwithinthispublication.Dr.Solis'seditorialapproachand academicstandingenabledtheinclusionofscholarlyessaysbyeminentMexicanandU.S. authorities,andthebookpromisestobecomeamajorreferenceonthesubject.Inadditionto originaltextsbyDr.Solis,andRobertoVelascoAlonso,curatorialassistant,weareindebtedto thedistinguishedauthorswhohavecontributedtothisvolume.Wearealsopleasedtocol- laboratewithLanducciEditoresonthepublicationofthiscatalogue. AlthoughalargepartoftheworkonviewinTheAztecEmpireistheresultofgenerous loansfromMexicaninstitutionsmadepossiblethroughCONACULTA-INAH,theexhibitionalso includesmorethansixtymajorPrecolumbianworksfrommuseumsintheUnitedStates. Thesecomplementandcompletethecurator'sportrayaloftheAztecpeopleandprovidea greaterawarenessoftherichesindomesticcollections.Thelendersarelistedelsewhere,and weareindebtedtothemfortheircooperationandenthusiasticsupportoftheproject. Thecomplexityofthisexhibitionpresentedunusualchallenges,anditsspectacularreal- izationistheresultoftheworkofallthedepartmentsoftheGuggenheimMuseum.Wethank inparticularthepersonnellistedintheProjectTeam.SpecialthanksalsogotoLisaDennison, DeputyDirectorandChiefCurator;MarcSteglitz,DeputyDirectorforFinanceandOperations; KarenMeyerhoff,ManagingDirectorforExhibitions,CollectionsandDesign;KendallHubert, DirectorofCorporateDevelopment;MarionKocot,ProjectManager;andMariluzHoyos, ProjectAssistant,fortheirsteadfastprofessionalismonallstagesoftheproject. Anexhibitionofthismagnitudecouldnottakeplacewithoutthegeneroussupportofour sponsors.Inparticular,wethankmajorsponsorsBanamexandTelevisa,whosecommitment tothesupportandpreservationofMexicanartandcultureislongstanding.AtBanamex, ManuelMedina-Mora,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,mustbethankedforhiscommitmentinreal- izingthisproject.Inaddition,JorgeHierroMolina,ExecutiveDirectorofInstitutional Relations;CandidaFernandezdeCalderon,DirectoroftheBanamexCulturalFoundation;and HermelindaCaceresGil,ExhibitionsandInternationalProjectsCoordinator,broughtgreat creativityanddedicationtothisproject.WealsoextendoursincerestgratitudetoTelevisa, undertheleadershipofEmilioAzcarragaJean,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,forprovidinginvalu- ablesupportthatmakesitpossibletosharethisremarkableculturewithdiverseaudiences. Inaddition,ClaudioX.Gonzalez,President,togetherwithMauricioMaille,VisualArtsDirector, andDianaMogollon,alloftheTelevisaFoundation,demonstratedaninspiringcommitment tothisexhibition. SignificantadditionalsupportwasprovidedbyPEMEX;inparticular,weareindebted toRaulMuhozLeos,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,andOctavioAguilarValencuela,Corporate DirectorofAdministration,fortheirdedicationtothisproject.TheMexicoTourismBoardalso deservesspecialrecognition;wearemostthankfultoFranciscoJ.Ortiz,ChiefExecutive Officer,togetherwithhisteam,AlejandroMuhozLedo,HeadofPromotionalDivision, GuillermoOhemOchoa,DirectorfortheAmericas,andMarisaIsabelLopez,Director, NortheastRegion,NewYorkoffice,fortheirsupport.Wewouldalsoliketoexpressourgrat- itudetoFernandezFlores,ChiefExecutiveOfficerofAeromexico,formuch-neededtrans- portationassistance,withspecialthankstoAugustoFernandezKegel,VicePresident forMarketingandE-Business,andMaricelaMorenoCardentti,AdvertisingandCorporate
ImageDirector.
ThisexhibitionhasalsobeenmadepossibleinpartbyanindemnityfromtheFederal CouncilontheArtsandtheHumanities.Wewouldalsoliketothanktheindividualsofthe LeadershipCommitteeforTheAztecEmpireaswellasparticipatingsponsorsGRUMA,ALFA, andConEdisonforadditionalcriticalsupporthelpingmakethisexhibitionpossible.Finally, wearegratefultoThirteen/WNETformediasupportallowingaudiencestolearnaboutthe importanceoftheAztecs. Indeed,itisduetothetirelesseffortsandgenerosityofsomanyindividualsandorgani- zationsthattheGuggenheimisabletopresentTheAztecEmpire,andtopresenttheachieve- mentsofthisgreatculture.Theobjectsgatheredtogetherforthisexhibitionareextraordinary inaesthetictermsaswellasforthesophisticatedandhierarchicalsocietytheyrepresent.
ThomasKrens
Director,TheSolomonR.GuggenheimFoundation
f <^~J I ft r
Introduction
ntroduction /•(•///"'Solis THEPUBLICHASGREETEDTHEARTOFPRE-HISPANICMEXICOWITHENTHUSIASMANDASENSEOF wonderandawe,ashasbeendemonstratedbythetremendoussuccessofexhi- bitionspresentedintheworld'smostcosmopolitancapitalssincethefirsthalf ofthetwentiethcentury.Inthisrespect,theopportunitytobringtogetheran exquisiteselectionofobjectsforTheAztecEmpire,whichre-createsthesplen- dorofthefinalchapteroftheindigenousworldofMexico,representsa momentousoccasion. Amongtheworksunitedherearemonumentalsculptures,reliefs,poly- chromeceramics,musicalinstruments,objectscarvedfromjadeandwood,as wellasornamentsandjewelrywroughtfromshell,turquoise,andgold.Allof themevokethehistoricalprocessesandlifestylesoftheAztecsandthevarious peoplesandsocietiesthatexistedalongsidethemduringagloriousperiodof wealth,power,andmajesty. Thisexhibitioncomesoutoftheresearchandpublicationsbyspecialistsin theartandcultureofthisfinalchapterofMesoamericanhistory,thebasisfor whichareindigenouscodicesandthechronicleswrittenbyEuropeansinthe earlysixteenthcentury.TheAztecEmpirehasbeenconceivedinordertoprovide aholisticvision,allowingviewers,astheyproceedthroughtheexhibition,to simultaneouslycontemplateandexamineartworkscreatedbytheinhabitants ofMexico-Tenochtitlanalongsidethoseofothercontemporaneouscultures. Visitorswillbeabletocomparetremendouslyinnovativeindigenousstyles,as expressedinthediverseformsanduniqueornamentaldevicesparticulartothe varioussocietiesinwhichtheyoriginated.Themonumentalspaceaffordedby theSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumwillalsoallowcommonalitiestobe tracedthroughtheso-calledinternationalstyleoftheLatePostclassicperiod- evidencedinsomeoftheextraordinarymasterpiecesondisplay-whichbecame consolidatedaroundthetimetheAztecempirewasestablished.Thisstyleis characterizedbyacomplexuniverseofsymbolsexecutedwithsimilarartistic means,throughwhichthedifferentindigenouspeoplescouldrecognizeone anotherandparticipateinacommonartisticlanguage,despitethefactthat theymaynothavebeenabletocommunicateviaspokenlanguage. WetrustthatvisitorsencounteringtheartoftheAztecswillhavean extraordinaryexperienceinwitnessingfirsthandtheprincipalfeaturesofthe culture'sastounding,multifaceteduniverse.Whenoneconsiderswhatmakes thisvisionofthecosmosuniqueanddifferentfromouire's,itsforms emergewithanindescribablepower.Indeed,creatingadialoguebetweenpast civilizationsandacontempo?ichasnotbeenaneasyprocess,althc therearemanyprecedentsforsuchanundertake ThefirstmodernattemptsbyWesternerstounderstandindigenousart occurredinthenineteenthcentury,astravelers,includingsomewell-known >urneyedtoMe-heperiodofrevolution,mdindep< I.Xii - • •»"• I If/' ^m m
Rearviewofcat.no.1
anditsfirstdecadesasarepublic.Thesetravelersillustratedtheirtaleswithimagesof ancientcitiesinruins,monuments,andrareandmysteriousobjects,allofwhich sparkedtheinterestofEuropeansandAmericanstofollowintheirfootstepsandto collectsimilartreasures.AmongthemostfamousaccountsarethebooksofJohnL Stephens,illustratedbyFrederickCatherwood,whicharedevotedtothemysterious worldoftheMaya;andtheworksofGuillaumeDupaix,whichwereunfortunately publishedverylateandthushadlessofanimpactthanStephens'sworks.Dupaix's writingsprovideddetailedevidenceofMexico'senormousarchaeologicalwealth,par- ticularlyinthecentralregionandthevalleysofOaxacaandPalenque.Thebibliogra- phyoftravelliteraturewouldlaterbeenrichedbyWilliamBullock'scontributions, whichprimarilydetailAztecarchaeology,whileEduardMuhlenpfordtandCarlNebel dedicatedtheireffortstoOaxaca,theGulfCoast,andMexicoCity.BaronAlexandervon Humboldt-apioneerinhisfield-collectedcodicesthathadbeenstoredinEuropean librariesandexhibitedthemtogetherwitharchaeologicalpieces,someofwhichhe himselfhadobtainedinMexico. Finally,weareindebtedtoPietroGualdiforconceivingthefirstMexicanmuseum, locatedinthecourtyardoftheUniversidadNacionalAutonomadeMexico,wherethe firstmonolithstobediscovered,beginningin1790inMexicoCity'sGreatPlazaandin theatriumofthecathedral,weredisplayed.Theseincludetheenormoussculpture GreatCoatlicue,thefirstmonumenttoemergeduringthatperiodofimprovementsto theurbaninfrastructureofMexicoCity;andtheStoneofTizoc,originallycalledthe
StoneofSacrifices.
Itwasduringthenineteenthcenturythatthepre-Hispanicworldgainedexposure throughthepublicationofsuperbetchings,whilethephenomenonofarchaeological collectingappeared.ThiswaspracticedinstitutionallywithinMexicoandprivatelyby individualsfromtheUnitedStatesandnationsinEurope,particularlybytheEnglish, Germans,Swiss,andFrench.Althoughtheiractivitieswereundertakenwithoutany governmentaloversight,theobjectstheyunearthedeventuallyenrichedthemuseums oftheirrespectivecountriesoforigin,wheretheywereconsideredthecreationsofa distant,exotic,andprimitiveworld. TheMuseoNacionaldeMexicowasmovedin1866fromitsquartersattheuni- versitytoabaroquepalacelocatedalongthesouthernsideofthePalacioNacional.The museum'snewhomehadbeendevotedincolonialtimestothesmeltingofprecious metalsandthemintingofcoins.Thismovewasmadetoobtainmorespace forexhibitingarchaeologicalandhistoricalpieces.Thegreatmonumentswere nowdisplayedinthecentralcourtyard,whilesmallersculptures,ceramics,tools, andornamentalobjectswerehousedintheroomsonthepalace'supperfloor.Itwas atthisvenerableinstitutionthatMexicanarchaeologicalresearchbeganandthe firstschoolofmuseology,whichhassincebroughtthecountrygreatprestige, wasestablished. TheGalleryofMonolithsopenedin1888inthemuseum'slargestexhibitionspace. ThiswasthemostsignificanteventintherevalorizationofMexico'spre-Hispanicpast. Theconstructionofthegalleryhadbeenmotivatedbythedesiretocreateaprotec- tiveenvironmentfortheSunStone,whichfornearlyacenturyhadbeendisplayed outdoors,embeddedinoneofthetowersofthecity'sMetropolitanCathedral. Themostimportantworksofsculpturethatthemuseumhadcollectedtodate wereexhibitedaroundthestone,amongthemtheGreatCoatlicueandhundreds ofstonefigures,ballcourtrings,reliefs,altars,andvessels,mostfromtheAztec period,thathadbeendiscoveredunderneaththemoderncapitalandatothermajorset- tlementsintheValleyofMexico.Aztecartworksandarchaeologythusregainedtheir visualpowerthroughthedisplayofcompellingimagesofancientgodsandrelatedcult '•*I A^ ' S& /»
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Aztec,ca.1500
* *v%. %JI f< ^H objects,whichhadbeenlostduringthecenturiesfollowingtheSpanishConquestof
Mexico-Tenochtitlan.
Internationalvalidationofindigenousart,however,wouldhavetowaituntilthe twentiethcentury.Thisoccurredonlyin1940withtheopeningofTwentyCenturiesof MexicanArtattheMuseumofModernArt,NewYork,whichwaspresentedincollab- orationwiththegovernmentofPresidentLazaroCardenas.Thisremarkableexhibition wasthefirstoutsideMexicanterritorytobringtogetherartworksfromthethreemajor periodsofthecountry'shistory:Precolumbian,colonial,andmodern.Theexhibition metwithoverwhelmingsuccess,asdidthecatalogue,whichincludedwritingsby AlfonsoCasoandservedasaguidebookforappreciatingthemostimportanttreasures ofancientMexico.Itwasthefirsttimethatthismuseumspace,whichwasdevotedto majorworksofinternationalmodernart,hadexperiencedsuchatriumphantinvasion. TheimpactcausedbyMexicanarchaeologywasfeltnotonlybymuseumvisitors inNewYork.ItwasalsoofparticularimportancefortheshiftamongMexicanintel- lectualsintheirattitudeaboutworksfromthePrecolumbianperiod,whichwerenow consideredtobeexpressionsofhighaestheticvalue.Thischangewasevidentinthe publicationofthebookArteprehispanicodeMexicoin1946,whosebroaddissemina- tionledtoanewlevelofappreciationinMexicoforindigenouscreations. Consideringsuchchanges,Caso,whohadjoinedthestaffoftheMuseoNacional deMexicoaround1950,transformedtheGalleryofMonolithsintothefirstexhibition spacedevotedspecificallytotheartandcultureoftheAztecs.Thegallerywasinten- tionallynamedtheMexicaHalltolinkthenameMexica-which,alongwithTenochca andAztec,hasbeenusedtoidentifythepeoplewhofoundedMexico-Tenochtitlan- withtheactualnameofthecountry,servingbyextensionasareferencetotheiden- tityofallMexicans.TheMexicaHallthusestablishedourmostdistantoriginsof nationalidentity. ManywereintroducedtoMexico'sPrecolumbianartthroughtheeffortsof FernandoGamboa.InthetwodecadesfollowingtheNewYorkexhibition,Gamboa testedthewatersbeyondtheAmericas,daringtobringtoEuropeanevenlargercon- tingentofworks,inthiscaseapolishedselectionofarchaeologicalobjectsthatgave thepublicachancetoappreciatetherichnessanddramaofpre-Conquestart.The formulathathadprovedsopopularinNewYorkwasrepeated:Pre-Hispanicartwas shownwithworksfromthecolonialperiodandpostrevolutionaryMexico.Thisexhibi- tion,whichtraveledtoParis,London,andStockholm,wasanotherhugesuccess,rep- resentingatriumphforMexicanart.ForthefirsttimeEuropeanaudienceswereable toexperienceMexico'smostvariedartisticexpressions,inanamazingcollectionof pre-Hispanicworksthatofferedbothspecialistsandtheuninitiatedanopportunityto exploretheirelegantformsandprofoundsymbolism.Theeventtriggeredenormous interestintheindigenouspeopleswhohadcreatedtheseworks.Thisreassessmentof ancientMesoamericanartwasfollowedbytwohighlysignificantculturaleventsthat demonstratetheprocessofreevaluatingthemostimportantcollectionsofMexican artintheUnitedStates. ThefirstwastheinaugurationatDumbartonOaksinWashington,D.C.,in1962,of asectiondevotedtoPrecolumbianart,exhibitingtheextraordinarycollection ofRobertWoodsBliss,whichhadbeenonviewattheNationalGalleryofArtsince
1947.ThesecondwasanexhibitionentitledBeforeCortes:SculptureofMiddle
America,whichopenedin1970attheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYork, commemoratingtheinstiturstcentennial.Theexhibitionwasusedasapretext formovingtheobjectscomitheNelsonA.RockefellerCollection,formerly inthecity'snowdefunctMuseumofPrimitiveArt,intoanewwingdesignedspecif- icallyfortheartoftheAmericas,Africa,andOceania. ThefirstcircuitoftravelingexhibitionsofMexicanartconcludedwiththeopen- ingofthenewMuseoNacionaldeAntropologiaatitspresentsiteinChapultepecPark inMexicoCity,whichtookplaceonSeptember17,1964.Theinaugurationofthis extraordinarystructure,thedesignforwhichwasbasedonahighlyadvancedarchi- tecturalandmuseologicalconcept,accordedeachculturalregionandarchaeological perioditsownspace,thusshowingvisitorsthespecifictechnologicaladvancesand artisticfeaturesofthediversepeopleswhoinhabitedancientMexico.Locatedinthe centerofthestructure,theMexicaHallwasconsideredtheprincipalattractionfor thosevisitingthemuseum.Thegallery'slocation,attheendofalongreflectingpool, wasmeanttoevoketheoriginalsiteofthegloriousMexico-Tenochtitlan,whichwas builtontheisletsinLakeTetzcoco.ArchitectPedroRamirezVazquez,thecreatorof thismagnumopus,conceivedtheMexicaHallinmonumentaldimensionstoimbue thespacewiththecharacterofatemple.Theheightandvolumeoftheexhibition spaceallowedvisitorstosuitablyappreciatethegrandeurofAztecmonumental sculpture,mostnotablytheSunStone,whichwasplacedattheendofthecentral nave,infrontofawhitemarblewallandsetonamarbleplatform,thustransform- ingthepieceintoanaltardevotedtoMexicanindigenousnationalidentity. AfteritsopeningtheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologiaquicklybecameatourist attractionforthoseseekingtolearnabouttherichnessofMexicanarchaeology, especiallyitsartisticexpressions.Themuseum'sdesignhadinternationalimpact, influencingthetransformationofexhibitionspacesinmanyothermuseumswith collectionsofPrecolumbianMexicanart.Inmanycasesdisparagingallusionstoprim- itiveart,whichhadheldfastuntilthistime,weredropped. Theeventthatbroughttheworld'sattentiontoAztecart,tothecreationsofthe "PeopleoftheSun,"waswithoutadoubtthediscoveryin1978ofthesculptureofthe goddessCoyolxauhqui,whichlaterledtothedevelopmentoftheTemploMayor Project.Fortwenty-fiveyearsnowthisprojecthasmadeextraordinaryarchaeological discoveriesthathaveastonishedpeopleacrosstheglobe.Itsresearcherscontinueto contributetotheknowledgeanddisseminationofinformationaboutthefoundersof
Mexico'sfirstcapital.
In1980apubliceagertolearnaboutandenjoythediscoveriesthathadbeen unearthedattheTemploMayorhadtheopportunitytovisitarelatedexhibitionpre- sentedatthePalaciodelasBellasArtesinMexicoCity.Includinganynumberof objectsofdelicatebeautyandpowerfulsymbolism,thiswasthefirstofnumerous exhibitionstodisplaytheadvancesmadeinarchaeologicalresearch.Sincethenthe interestinAztecarthasledtootherexhibitions,whichbesidespresentingobjects fromtheTemploMayorexploredthemesrelatingtothecultureofTenochtitlan'speo- ple.Theseexhibitionswerenoteworthyforthesheervolumeofartifactsdisplayed, somebeingshownforthefirsttimeoutsidetheiroriginallocations. In1982wesenttheexhibitionTheAztecCivilizationtoJapan,whereitwaspre- sentedinSendaiandNagoya.Duringthecuratorialprocessweselectedimportant artisticandarchaeologicalobjectsthathadpreviouslyremainedinstorage,hidden fromtheeyesofthepublic.Theseworkswerenowconsideredkeypiecesinthe redesignoftheMexicaHallattheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologia. TheexhibitionGlanzundUntergangdesaltenMexiko:DieAztekenundihre Vorlaufer,whichopenedin1986,broughttheartofancientMexicotoEuropeand Canada,highlightingworksoftheAztecworld.ArtofAztecMexico:Treasuresof Tenochtitlan,presentedin1983attheNationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C,and Aztec:TheWorldofMoctezumo,whichopenedin1992attheDenverMuseumof NaturalHistory,wereparticularlysignificantbecauseinthemtheartoftheAztecs wasnotimmersedwithinacontextofotherMesoamericanobjects.Atlast,the finalindigenousdevelopmentinMexicopriortothearrivaloftheSpaniardswaspre- sentedonitsown. Inthe1990stheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologiaonceagainsawtheneedto shareitscollectionsintheformofnewtouringexhibitions.Beginningitssuccessful tourattheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinOctober1990,Mexico:SplendorsofThirty Centuries-latercontinuingontoSanAntonioandLosAngeles-wasorganizedonce againaroundtheholisticconceptofMexicanartbrokendownintothreemainperi- ods.Asitspointofreference,theexhibitionusedthemostsignificantarchaeological sitesinMesoamerica:LaVenta,Izapa,Teotihuacan,MonteAlban,Palenque,ElTajin,
ChichenItza,andMexico-Tenochtitlan.
InthesameyeartheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologiaorganizedtheexhibition PrecolumbianArtofMexico,whichtraveledtoParis,Madrid,Berlin,London,andTokyo between1990and1992,providingthepublicwiththechancetoviewaselectionof worksofthehighestartisticqualityfromMesoamerica-withexamplesfromall culturalareasandarchaeologicalperiods-aswellasfromthenorthofMexico.The exhibitionwashailedbyinternationalcriticsasamicrocosmofthemuseumin
ChapultepecParktravelingtheworld.
In1999,duringthefirstphaseofrenovationandredesignoftheMuseoNacional deAntropologia,wemadeprofoundchangestotheMexicaHall,whichwouldallow nearlyeighthundredobjectstobedisplayed.Subsequently,withtheexperience acquiredovermanyyearsofresearchandmuseumundertakings,wedeveloped, togetherwithProfessorEduardoMatosMoctezuma,theexhibitionAztecs,whichwas presentedin2002attheRoyalAcademyofArts,London.Thisexhibitionunitedobjects fromnumerousmuseumsinEurope,Mexico,andtheUnitedStates;inparticular,the assemblageofalargenumberofpre-Hispanicandcolonialcodiceswasarareevent andgavetheexhibitionitsuniqueidentity. ThemostdemandingcriticsconsideredAztecstobethesecond-mostimportant exhibitionofnon-Westernart-rankingbehindonlythelegendaryTreasuresof Tutankhamun-lobepresentedinEurope,foritsrelevance,thehighqualityofthe worksselected,anditspopularityamongspecialistsandthegeneralpublicalike. Aztecscontinuedtogarnerveryfavorablereviewswhenthenextyearittraveledto Germany,whereitwaspresentedinBerlinandBonn.PriortoleavingtheEuropean continent,theloansfromMexicointheoriginalexhibitionwerejoinedwithobjects fromItaliancollections,thusformingTreasuresoftheAztecs,anewpresentationthat delightedvisitorstothePalazzoRuspoli,Rome,inthefirsthalfof2004. Thesearethesignaleventsthathaveprecededtheextraordinaryshowingof TheAztecEmpire,nowonviewattheGuggenheimMuseum.Theexhibitionfocuses ontheexpansionandculminationoftwopowerfulempires:theAztecandthe Purepecha(Tarascan),whodominatedmuchofMesoamericaduringthesecondhalf ofthefifteenthcenturyandthefirsttwodecadesofthesixteenth.Thesplendors ofthesetwoindigenousculturesareindeedmadepalpablebytheveryworks presentedtoviewers.ThemostcomplexpoliticalentityconsideredistheTriple Alliance,betterknownastheAztecempire,whoseworksmakeupthecoreof thisexhibition.Originallyaconfederationofthreeemergingcity-states,headedby Mexico-Tenochtitlan,thiscoalitiondominatedthecentral,southern,andea regionsofMesoamerica.Itachievedandmaintainedthispowerthroughmilitarycon- quests,theimpositionofastricttributesystem,andthedisseminationofitslanguage, Nahuatl.Moreover,itreinforceditspreeminencethroughacommonartisticlanguage thattranscendedlinguisticbarriers. DuringthePostclassicperiodthemosthighlyprizedofmetals,gold,wasconsidered tobeamaterialoriginatinginthesun,anditsusewasthusrestrictedtotherulingclass andnobilityexclusively.Visitorstothisexhibitionwillhavetheextraordinaryopportu- nitytocomefacetofacewiththemostimportantcollectionofgoldjewelryfrom PrecolumbianMexicoeverdisplayedintheUnitedStates.Moresignificantly,TheAztec Empireallowsustobearwitnesstoatimewhenartistsexpressedthroughphysical objectstheessenceoftheworldaroundthem,theirculture'screationmyths,andtheir people'scloserelationshiptothesacreduniverse,withallitsdualitiesoflifeanddeath, nightandday,creationanddestruction. % r\ :/,'.. r**"V. '^V4 ., & Vt I1 $ I )•»* * tftfgfr 1 M m 1 "ta ^Hm ^HHHv>* 4
AztecEmpire
TracesofanIdentity
////uenle Mexicanartisanoveltyinthefieldofuniversalcultureandevenin Mexicanculture....Throughitsmanifestationsitsummarizesand synthesizestheentirehistoryofourbecomingwhoweare.Totryto understandMexicowithoutincludingitsartistoeliminatethemost fertilesourceforunderstandingwhatweare.-JustinoFernandez' UNDERSTANDINGHUMANKINDTHROUGHITSCREATIVEOUTPUTHASBEENTHETASKOFART historysinceitcameintobeingasadiscipline.Throughartisticmanifestations, thisbranchofhistoryseekstounderstandthehumanbeingasthecreatorof images.Suchimagesnarratestoriesoftimesandplacesbothnearanddistant. Notallthecreationsthatwetodayconsiderartisticoneswerethesubject ofart-historicalinquiryfromtheinceptionofthediscipline;onlytwocenturies nowseparateusfromitsbeginningsasafieldofknowledge.Whenarthistory beganwithintheWesterntradition,itsself-definedtaskwasbuildinganunder- standingofcertainworks,themajorityofwhichoriginatedintheWest.Under suchconditionswereterms,methodologies,andstrategiesdevelopedfordelv- ingdeeplyintothemeaningsofsuchobjects. ItissufficienttorecallbookswithsuchtitlesasTheHistoryofWorldArt,in whichtheartworksofthe"world"werelimitedtosurveysstartingwiththecave paintingsatLascauxandAltamiraandendingwiththeEuropeanandUnited Statesavant-garde.TheartofAsia,Africa,andLatinAmericawasomittedorat bestincludedasanappendixinacomparativelysmallnumberofpages.However, whenthecommunicationsmediaflourishedinthelatenineteenthcentury,that narrowWesternworldbecameawareofthevastnessofhumanexpression.Thus itshorizonswerebroadened,anditbegantoinvestigatetheartisticpossibilities ofotherpreviouslyignoredwork.Intheeyesofthenascentdisciplineofarthis- tory,manynon-Westernobjectssuggestedacomplexandfertilediscourse. The"new"formsweredifferentfromthefamiliarandacceptedcanon.For thisreason,thoseterms,methodologies,andstrategiesdevelopedtosolveart- relatedquestionshadtobeextended,adapted,andreinventedtotakeinto accounttheproblemspresentedbytherecentlyacceptedartworks.Becauseof art'spotentialtoprovideinformation,therewasnowaccesstoknowledgepre- viouslyunimaginedaboutthepeoplewhocreatedtheseworksandabouttheii historicalandculturalcircumstances.Inthatway,arlhistory,eagertodecode information,changedinkeepingwiththedemandsoftheworksandtheirroots 'imesandlatitudesintheeonimandevelopment. Consistentwiththeoriginalpurposesotgarthistory,these"other works,"amongthemobjectsproducedinancientMexico,haveslowlybeen incorporatedintoV'seofthishumanisticinquiry.Beforetheywere consideredwithinthissphere,theirhistoryhadbeenlongandeventful,yet iokcenturiesbeforetheirexpressivequalitiesand01,acquireda k preeminentplaceinMexicanart,andtheiruniversalquality wasrecognized. Thehistoryofrejectionandacceptanceoftheworkscreated bythepeoplesofMesoamericabeforetheSpanishConquest clearlyillustratesthealternationofscornandcomprehension accordedbyWesternculture.Itiscommonknowledgethatin thesixteenthcenturythegatesoftheoldcontinentwere openedontoanew,enigmatic,mysteriousworld.-Thisparallel worldawakenedthecuriosity,wonder,uneasiness,andinterest ofeveryonewhoarrived.AsaresultoftheConquest,Meso- americawasrevealedtotheeyesoftheWestthroughthe diversityandabundanceofitscreations.Througharchitec- ture,sculpture,muralpainting,ceramics,andotherforms, theartisticprojectofancientsocietiesbecameafertilefield- unexplored,ambiguous,confusing,andseductive. Thespaces,volumes,times,textures,lines,colors,rhythms, andmovementsofthe"new"objectsunfoldedandthereby suggestedalanguageoftheirown,whichappealedtothe sensesofthoseaccustomedtoperceivinginanotherway.These propertiesrevealedthedifferenceandothernessofanartthat expectedtoopenupadialoguewiththoselookingatit.
Decipheringthemeaningofthoseformshasbeenthetask
ofdiverseeras,people,andlinesofthinking,fromtheConquest tothepresentday.Intransitiontothelegitimationofpre- Hispanicart,termssuchaspaganandexotichavebeenusedto describeitsformsandqualifyitsmeanings.
Agoodthreadtofollowinsearchofviewpointsabout
PrecolumbianartisJustinoFernandez'sbookEsteticadelarte mexicano(1972).Inhiseagernesstocrossthethresholdinto thepastbymeansofart,theauthorwentbacktothesixteenth century.Thereheconfrontedthecriticsofvarioustimestodis- covertheirparticularcontributionstotheconstructionofideas abouttheartofancientMexico.Hefoundthatthisartwork washighlydisputed,withjudgmentsfallingbetweenwonder andfright,praiseandscorn.Outofthepolyphonyhewasable todiscerntwomaincampsamongthecritics:thosewhopriv- ilegedthecraftsmanshipandmasteryoftheworksinspiteof theirdiabolicalmeanings,andthosewhowerewhollyfocused onthesymbolicandreligiousideologyoftheworks,overlook- ingthematterofwhethertheyadheretoWesternnotionsof naturalism.Mesoamericanartworkstookonthemeaningsof thetimesinwhichtheywerestudied,described,andargued over.Therefore,insomecases,thecriticsresortedtocompar- isonswithnon-AmericancivilizationssuchastheEgyptian,
Assyrian,andEtruscan.
Fernandez'speregrinationsareconfusingandcomplicated, andtheauthorwasnotalwaysabletoreconcileformandcon-
ThevoiceofManuelGamioinForjandopatria(1916),
however,suggestedtheconjunctionofboththesignifier(form) andtheI(conternecessaryforarrivingat thebroadestunderstandingofindigenous Todayarthistoriansstillfaceconsiderablechallenges.Other disciplinescanhelpscholarsbyprovidingnewperspectivesand encouragingthemtoformulatebetterquestions.Comingfrom themultidisciplinaryapproach,advancesintheintellectualand emotionalcomprehensionofartoftheMexicanpasthaveledto abroaderacceptanceofnon-Westernart.Thisnewvision,atrue openingupoftheworld,isoneofthesignsofmoderr Theevaluationofpre-Hispanicartanditsinclusioninthe worldwidehistorical-criticalconsciousnessarerelativelynew developmentsthatbegantogathersteaminthelatenineteenth century.Thoseintensiveprocesseshaverevealedhowindige- nousartenrichedourpastandestablishedourculturalhistory inacenturies-longcontinuum,amongitsothercontributions. However,asGeorgeKublerpointedoutin1991,westillvacillate betweenisolationanddissemination,betweenunityanddiver- sitywithinPrecolumbianart.6Inrecentyearswehavewitnessed anewdesiretounderstandthisart,tograspitsoriginalmean- ingswhereverpossible,andtodisentangleitsreligiousand cosmologicalmessages.
Theprocessofunderstandingtheartofnon-Westernpeo-
pleshasradicallychangedourknowledgeofworldart.Howthis occurredwouldbeanexcellentexampleforadialecticalstudy. Thedevelopmentofartinthemodernageledtoarevaluation ofnon-Westernart,whichinturnsteeredthedevelopment ofmodernart.Itiswelltorememberheretheriseofthe twentieth-centuryavant-garde,rootedinPost-Impressionism andbranchingoutthroughExpressionism,Fauvism,Cubism, andSurrealism.AndreBretonhadanengagedinterestinindi- genousMexicanart,ofbothpastandpresent,andbelievedhe sawinCoatlicueanillustrationofthe"convulsivebeauty"fore- shadowingSurrealism. Longevityisamongthegreatestvirtuesofallancientart,but italsopresentsthefirstobstacletobeovercomeinunder- standingthepast:theproblemoftemporaldistance;Navigating amongthedifficultiesispossibleifwepayattentiontothe froce,thetermusedbyPaulRicoeurtodesignatetherepresen- tationofwhathasdisappeared.Accordingtothephilosopher, theonlyreferencepointwehavefromthepastliesinthetrace; therefore,theknowledgewehaveaboutthepastcanonlycome fromareconstructionoftheinformationthetraceprovides. Insofarasart'straceacquiresanintratemporalnaturethat allowsittobelongtoalltimes,tobeunderstoodinallepochs, theoriginaltimeinwhichitwasmadecanbere-created.This capacitytotranscendtheconstantbarrieroftime'spassage turnsartintoalinkbetweenpastandpresent,evenifthereisa lackofwrittendatatobackitscreation,asisthecasefor majorityofPrecolumbianobjects H"presenceofdiverse,multifacetedexpressionisnolonger anoveltyineitherMexicanoruniversalculture.Precolumbian artisoneofthefoundationsshoringupnationalidentities. TheenormousvalueolthelegitimationofAztecartandofits existenceintimeliesinitspresencebothasartobjectsandas anexpressionofhumanity. "Iamother!"saidArthurRimbaud,inapronouncementthat wasalreadyanexpressionofmodernityandgeneralknowledge. Indeed,wearethoseothers.Artfunctionsasachannelofcom- munication;itservestointegrate.Inartwecanrecognizeour- selvesindividuallyandtogether,asifinadialoguebetweenour headsandourhearts.
Mexico-AztecArt
FromthevastbodyofartproducedinMesoamerica,Mexica-
Aztecartstandsoutasuniquelyconfident.'Inthefirstplace,it- togetherwithOlmecart-isprimarilyavolumetricsculptural form.Thattheviewercancontemplatesculptureintheround fromdifferentanglesallowsforadifferentkindofperception thanreliefsrequire.Second,wecanobservewithinthediverse formsofMexicaarttheprofoundmaturityandself-awareness ofacreativepeople. Asweknowfromvariedstudiesbasedonearlycolonialtexts, thedefiningtraitsofMexicaartwereachievedbecauseofthe culture'sbeliefinaconceptualandmetaphoricpairing,the"dia- loguebetweenheadandheart"andthefashioningofa"deified heart."Theobjectivewastoreachaperfectequilibriumbetween thedual,opposedelementsthatcouldbefoundthroughoutthe universe.Thiscametogetherthroughtheidealofknowledgeto whichtheMexicaaspired,whichwascalledtoltecayotl.Theper- sonwhohadadialoguewithhisorherownheartwasknown asatoltecatl,todaycalledan"artist."Oncehisorhercreative goalswerereached,theartisttranscendedthesphereofthe godsinordertofulfillthetasksrevealedbythesegods.The artistwenttotheessenceofthingstolearnfromthemand teachothersaboutthatintimatedialogue.Thegoalwastopre- servethestatusquo,thatis,thepresentexistenceoftheuni- verse,bygivingthankstoandpropitiatingthespiritualpowers. Thetangibleresultsofthesedivineapprenticeshipscanstillbe admiredincountlessworksindifferentmediums:architecture, ceramics,sculpture,lapidaryart,literature,painting,manu- scripts,silverwork,andtextiles. Withthisfoundation,Mexicaartacquireditsdistinctivenote anditsoriginalitywithintherealmofMesoamericanart,specif- icallythroughtheremarkablepowerofitsrepresen-tations.This forcewasgroundedinanunquestionablyvitalspiritthatlayon thethinlinebetweenalongingforpleasureandtheanxietyof apeopleconfrontedbytheendoftime.Inotherwords,Nahua worksspokeofthepeople'sconnectiontothefutureofthecos- mos,andthedeifiedheartsubmitteditselfineternalgratitude tothegods.IntheMexicavisionofthecosmos,thehuman beingwasessential. Formalqualitiesandcommunicativeenergy,united,underlie thevitalityofMexicaart.Mostoftheseworksmakeuseofcom- mongeometricfigures:rectangular,polyhedral,andpyramidal prisms;conesandtheirvariouscombinations;spheres;ovoids.
Imagesarecreatedthroughawisehandlingofformsandan
absolutecontrolovermaterials,aswellasaninexhaustible desiretoexpressthenuancesoflivesheldincheck.Although objectsmaywoundspace,withelementsprojectingoutward, theycannotchangeit,becausetheyarefrozenintime.They advanceinspacebutonlysofar;exceptfortherareexception, theirmovementisstoppedinitstracksorforcedtoretreat,con- tainedwithoutexpansion,withouttakinganyrisks.Thelimitsof stone,firedclay,wood,oranyothermaterialconstrainthe forms,asiftheyhadbeentakenprisonerandwerestrugglingto escape.ThusMexicaartworksareimbuedwithanaccumulation ofcontainedemotionsthatseekintegrationintotheuniversal; perhapshumantimeandspaceaspiretosacredrealmsoutside timeandspace. AsintherestofMesoamericanart,Mexicaobjectsfallinto basicgroupsdefinedbytheirtypeoffiguration:human, zoomorphic,vegetal,andhybrids.Yetanothergroupismadeup ofbarelyinsinuatedscenes.Becausebothformalandthematic variationsabound,andcountlessartworkswereproduced,here Iwilldiscussonlysomekeyexamplesoftheaforementioned types.Mostofthesearesculpturesexecutedinstone.
TheEloquenceoftheCosmology
Ifwestartfromtheproposalthatartspeaksofthewayitscre- atorsperceivedtheirplaceintheworld,severalMexicaexamples quicklycometomind.PerhapsthebestknownistheSunStone. Itiswell-knownthatthereliefrepresentsthefifthsunandthe entirecosmos.Thepredominantformsareconcentricrings, whichcontaintheveryuniversefromitsnucleus(theinnermost ring)toitslimits(theoutermostring).Thedeity'sfaceoccupies thecenter,andtohissideswecanseehishandsorclawsthat imprisonhearts.Thegodappearswithintheollinsign(which means"movement"),fourrectangularpanelsthatconvergeina circle,likethebladesofafan.Thesepanelsincludesignsforthe various"suns"orprecedingeras.Thissetisencircledbyaring thatincludestheglyphsrepresentingthetwentydays. Surroundingthatisanotherring,withsolarsymbolsandrays thatcrossthebordersofthecircles.Theoutermostringconsists oftwoenormousxiuhcoatl,orfireserpents,whoseheadsface oneanotherinthelowerpartofthemonument;fromtheiropen mouthsemergethefacesofothergods.Thustheuniverseis quadripartiteanddynamic,evenifboundedbycircularcontours- ultimatelycontainedbythexiuhcoatl,whichalsoreflectthe universe'sdualaspect. AmongadditionalexamplesofoutstandingMexicasculpture arerepresentationsofthehungrygoddess,Tlaltecuhtli,whowas believedtoliveinthelowerpartofthecosmos.Shecanbeseen carvedonthebottomofmanysculptures,hiddenfromhuman sightbutomnipresenttothegodsandindirectcontact• them.Sheislikecontainedenergythatisinvisibletohumans
Folio*
MuscoN..
butlieswithinthepowerofthecarvedstone.Tlaltecuhtliis noteworthyforhersprawlingposture:herarmsandlegsopen, herheadthrownback.Herhairiscurlyanddisheveled,fullof spidersandscorpionsthatcrawlthroughthedownonherhead. Thedivinity'sfaceishybrid,sincesheissometimeshuman, sometimesafantasticanimalwithopensnoutandhugeeye- teeth.Thedeityopensherjawsandsticksouthertongue,ages- turethattransformsherintothepersonificationofaknife,with eyesandteeth.Inmanyexamplesherhandsandfeethave threatening,felineclaws.Askull-and-crossbonesdesignistyp- icalofherclothing. ThisdivineimageofTlaltecuhtliisuniquetoMexicaart,yet commonwithinit.Itaccentuatesfeelingscontained,butonthe pointofexploding.Herposeinmostsculpturessuggestsan unequalstruggletofreeherselffromthesurroundingrock, whichconfinesandcompressesher,asifitwerekeepingher small.Itisnocoincidencethatthisisthedeityoftheearth,both creatoranddestroyer,whoacceptsnorestrictions,notevenin herimages.Indeed,sheattemptstoemitawarwhoop-shown bytheknife-throughthatterrible,opensnout.
OneofthemostmagnificentformsinMexicastatuaryisthe
embodimentinstoneofcosmologyitself,theGreatCoatlicue.
Herpyramidal,cruciformbodycombineshumanandanimal
elements,includingtwoserpentsface-to-faceinsteadofahead; femalebreasts,softbutnotspent;anecklaceofhandsand hearts;andfelineclawsinsteadofhandsandfeet.Skulls,feath- ers,snails,andserpentsmakeuppartofherattire.Herfigureis erect,defiantbeforeallcreation,bespeakingthegreatmother whofeedsanddestroys.Italsorepresentsachallengetothe timeandspacethegoddesscreates,disruptingandcontaining themwithinherself.Thusherimagegivesphysicalformto abstractconcepts. ThisgreatsculptureofCoatlicuesucceedsincommunicating themetaphysicalandsupernaturalpowerofthegods,inaddi- tiontotheMexicavisionofthecosmosoverall.Herimageisthe sensationofterriblenesscastinstone.Itmakestheintangible concreteandbringsthepastbacktolife.Itconformstospace andtime,yetsimultaneouslydestroysbothtocreatethemanew, challengingtheireternalflow.Avitalchallengesetinstone,the imageofCoatlicuecanconqueritsownuniverse.
Anotherfundamentalfigureinthisvisionofthecosmosis
Coatlicue'sdismembereddaughter,Coyolxauhqui.Asamuti- lated,quarteredgoddess,sheattainsindeathadynamicposi- tionthroughtheollinsymbol,ascanbeseeninarelieffrom thefootoftheTemploMayoratTenochtitlan.IntheMexica mythherbodywascutupbyherbrotherHuitzilopochtli,who wieldedaterribleweapon,intheformofaxiuhcoatl.Asaresult usharshtreatment,herextremitiesaresplayedlikefan bladesintherelief.Wecanalsorecognizeelementsidentil herasachthonicdivini
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