[PDF] The Variant Meanings of Secularism in India: Notes Toward

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The Variant Meanings of Secularism

i n India : Note s Towar d

Conceptua

l Clarification s

BADRINAT

H RA O

Multieulturalis

m ha s a rathe r strang e nam e i n India . I t i s know n a s secularis m an d i s a multifaeete d expression , meanin g differen t thing s t o differen t people . "Secularism " seem s incongmou s i n a lan d tha t i s hom e t o virtuall y al l th e majo r religion s o f th e world . A s a doctrin e ad - vocatin g th e separatio n o f cnurc h an d state , i t ha s littl e meanin g i n In - dia . I f i t mean s "equa l respec t fo r al l religions, " a s th e India n stat e de - fines it , the n th e ter m i s incorrect . How , then , di d thi s expressio n becom e a par t o f th e politica l discours e i n India ? Unti l th e earl y par t o f th e twentiet h eentury , secularis m remaine d relativel y obscur e a s a politica l concep t i n India . I t gaine d prominenc e i n th e 1940s
, afte r th e MusH m Leagu e demande d a separat e homelan d fo r th e Muslims . Th e Leagu e predicate d it s deman d o n religiou s an d cultura l grounds , arguin g tha t a s follower s o f Islam , Muslim s consti - tute d a separat e natio n an d a differen t culture . I t expresse d misgiving s abou t th e fat e o f Mushm s i n a Hindu-dominate d fre e India . A s th e

League'

s movemen t gaine d strength , wit h th e taci t patronag e o f th e

British

, th e India n Nationa l Congres s (Congress , henceforth ) conteste d it s claim s b y pointin g ou t th e syncreti c religiou s tradition s o f India . I t als o deede d wha t i t considere d t o b e a n illegitimat e abus e o f religio n i n politic s an d accuse d th e Leagu e o f indulgin g i n th e politic s o f commu - nalism . T o distinguis h itsel f fro m th e communa l politic s ofth e Musli m

League

, th e Congres s affirme d it s fait h i n "secularism. " I t argue d tha t unlik e th e "communal " League , i t wa s wedde d t o secularism , b y whic h i t mean t tw o things . First , i t di d no t believ e i n misusin g religio n fo r ac - •BADRINAT H RA O (B.A. , Bangalor e University , India ; M.A. , Bangalor e University ; M.A. ,

Queen'

s University ; Ph.D. , Universit y o f Alberta ) i s Assistan t Professor , Sociolog y an d Asia n

Studies

, Ketterin g University , Flint , Michigan . H e i s als o visitin g faculty . Internationa l In - stitut e fo r th e Sociolog y o f Law , Oiiati , Spain . H e i s autho r o f a monograph , publishe d i n

Kannada

, entitle d Secularism and the Minorities in India. A n articl e wil l soo n appea r i n

Journal

of African and Asian Studies. Specia l interest s includ e religion , law , an d politics ; huma n rights . Sout h Asia n politics , culture , an d society , an d la w an d societ y i n Sout h Asia . Thi s articl e i s par t o f a large r boo k manuscrip t entitle d The Myth of "Equal Respect": Multi- eulturalism, Minorities, and. Globalization in India.

48 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

complishin g politica l objectives , bu t believe d i n confinin g religio n t

othe private sphere. Second, that contrary to the League's propaganda,the postcolonial state would not discriminate on the basis ofreligion.Thus, the Congress invoked "secularism" to distinguish its politics fromthe "cotumunalism" of the Mushm League. Its twin goals were to af-firm the moral superiority of its poUtics and to assure the minoritiesthat their rights would be secure in independent India.

Muc h ha s happene d sinc e secularis m first entere d th e politica l dis - cours e o f India . I t ha s acquire d ne w nuance s an d varian t meanings . I n thi s essay , th e differen t meaning s o f secularis m wil l b e explored . Th e

Western

, constitutional , Congress , an d Hind u nationalis t discourse s o f secularis m wil l b e analyze d an d I wdl l poin t ou t th e aberration s i n thei r conception s an d th e problem s the y engender . I argu e tha t considerin g th e historica l contex t i n whic h i t emerged , secularis m mus t b e under - stoo d fro m a minorit y perspective , meanin g tha t th e qtiintessenc e o f it s meanin g i s tha t i t woul d protec t an d promot e th e socio-economic , po - litical , an d cultura l right s ofth e religiou s minorities . TH E INCONGRUIT Y O F WESTER N SECULARIS M I N INDI A I n Hind i an d othe r vernacula r languages , th e tert n "secularism " i

soften rendered as "Dharma Nirapehshata," which, approximately,means "rehgious neutrality." While the Indian expression does not re-flect the nuances of "secularism," this is about as close as one can get inIndian languages. This approximation underscores the alienness oftheconcept in the Indian context. Since it conveys the sense of "rehgiousneutrality," secularism, in the popular mind, stands for the pursuit ofatheism by the state. Furthermore, since the notion of the ruler andthe state as defenders of faith is fairly well entrenched, secularismarouses further suspicion as a doctrine whose aim is to disembed thetraditional pillars or support for religion. The opponents of secularism,particularly the Hindu nationahst party BJP and its allies, have ex-ploited all these factors in their attempts to exacerbate popular hostilitytoward the concept.

I t woul d b e instructiv e t o explor e th e factor s tha t influence d th e state' s decisio n t o privileg e th e definitio n o f secularis m a s "equa l re - spec t fo r al l religions. " T o d o s o require s delvin g int o th e option s tha t th e stat e ha d fo r makin g it s choices . Fo r variou s reason s i n th e India n context , i t woul d hav e oee n inconceivabl e fo r ther e t o hav e bee n a definitio n o f secularis m a s th e Enhghtenment - inspire d tota l separatio n ofth e stat e fro m religion , o r a s th e wal l o f separatio n betwee n stat e an d churc h unde r th e America n Constitution , o r eve n a s th e neutralit y o f th e stat e towar d al l religions . Ther e wer e five factor s tha t mihtate d agains t th e adoptio n ofth e Wester n connotation s o f secularism . First , Hinduis m doe s no t posses s th e feature s o f Semiti c rehgion

ssuch as a central authority, a centralized church, and a common scrip-tural or canonical authority. The absence of a spiritual authority made

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 49

i t imperativ e fo r th e stat e t o interven e i n matter s concernin g Hindu - ism , particularl y issue s concernin g it s reforms. ' Fo r instance , reform s i n th e administratio n o f Hind u temples , Hind u endowment s an d chari - tabl e institutions , Musli m wakf (religiou s endowments ) propertie s an d th e lik e require d th e stat e t o ge t involve d i n matter s which , strictl y speaking , fal l unde r th e domai n o f religion . Invoking , however , th e ple a o f protectin g publi c interests , th e stat e ha s institutionalize d it s in - terventionis t role . Thus , severa l provincia l government s hav e regula r ministrie s fo r th e administratio n orHind u religiou s endowment s an d temple s an d Mus - li m wakfs . The y ar e headed ^ b y cabine t minister s an d hav e hug e bu - reaucracie s t o manag e wha t th e stat e contend s ar e "secular " matter s o f religiou s bodies . Dichotomizin g secula r issue s fro m spiritua l one s i s easie r i n theor y tha n i n practice . An d thi s i s no t jus t becaus e Hinduis m i s no t a n "organized " religio n bu t als o becaus e ther e i s a lon g histor y o f symbioti c relation s betwee n th e temple s an d th e stat e datin g bac k t o tn e colonia l period . Th e temple s hav e al l alon g provide d th e stat e wit h rich materia l an d symboli c resource s fo r it s legitimation . I n tum , th e stat e ha s provide d patronag e t o temple s an d enable d the m t o flourish .

Secularis

m tha t require s th e stat e t o abjur e it s righ t t o interven e i n matter s o f religio n subvert s a neatl y worke d ou t arrangemen t whic h augment s th e state' s legitimac y an d prowess . Thi s i s on e o f th e mai n reason s wh y th e wester n connotatio n o f secularis m ha s bee n rejecte d a s bein g unsuitabl e i n th e India n context .

Frankli

n Presler' s wor k (1984 ) o n th e intervention s o f th e Tami l Nad u governmen t i n th e affair s o f 32,00
0 publi c temple s throug h it s Hind u Religiou s an d Charitabl e Endowment s (Administration ) De - partmen t i s quit e revealing . Th e provincia l governmen t o f Tami l Nad u ha s justifie d it s interventio n o n th e groun d tha t th e temple s ar e "publi c trust s fo r whic h th e stat e ha s a direc t responsibility." ^ Th e Suprem e Cour t o f Indi a ha s uphel d thi s claim . A s Presle r argues , however , sinc e i t i s virtuall y impossibl e t o distinguis h "templ e a s publi c trust " fro m "templ e a s religion, " th e stat e ha s sullie d it s secula r record. ^ Th e temple s collectivel y ow n aroun d 500,00
0 acre s o f fertil e agri - cultura l land^, ^ an d hav e hug e income s i n th e for m o f publi c donations .

Althoug

h no t al l temple s ar e prosperous , Presle r state s tha t 16,50 0 temple s ar e wealth y sinc e the y ow n land s an d ge t sumptuou s donation s fro m devotees . Th e trustee s o f thes e rich temple s ar e appointee s o f 1 . D.E . Smith , India as a Secular State (Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1963)
, 231
. 2 . Frankli n A . Presler , "Th e Structur e an d Consequence s o f Templ e Polic y i n Tami l Nadu ,

1967-81,

" i n Cultural Policy in India, ed. Lloy d I . Rudolp h (Ne w Delh i : Chanaky a Publica - tions , 1984)
, 59-76
; se e esp . 60
. 3 . Ibid . 4 . Ibid. , 62
. 5 . Ibid. , 64
.

50 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

th e government , an d suc h appointment s ar e muc h sough t afte r becaus e the y confe r acces s t o usefu l resource s an d privileges . Presle r estimate s tha t i f on e take s a n averag e o f fou r trustee s pe r temple , th e stat e ha s aroun d 66,00
0 trusteeshi p position s tha t i t ca n disburs e a s patronage . H e ha s show n ho w al l politica l partie s tha t hav e rule d Tami l Nadu , in - cludin g th e professedl y atheisti c regiona l partie s DM K an d AIADMK, ' hav e exploite d th e benefit s accruin g fro m intervenin g i n th e affair s o f temple s unde r th e guis e o f streamlinin g thei r administration . T'h e secon d facto r tha t militate s agains t th e adoptio n o f th e Wester n connotatio n o f secularis m relate s t o th e precedent s lai d dow n i n th e cours e o f centurie s o f colonialism . Bot h i n th e Mugha l an d Britis h pe - riods , th e stat e provide d patronag e t o variou s religiou s groups . I n th e initia l stage s o f th e Britis h period , th e Eas t Indi a Compan y adopte d a polic y o f religiou s neutralit y s o a s no t t o offen d th e religiou s sensibili - tie s o f th e "natives " an d jeopardiz e it s commercia l interests . Ye t th e

Britis

h wer e draw n int o religiou s affair s fo r a variety o f reasons . I n som e instances , the y wer e convince d tha t the y ha d t o continu e th e reli - giou s patronag e provide d b y th e ruler s fro m who m the y too k control . Th e populace , accustome d t o officia l patronage , cam e t o expec t th e sam e fro m th e British . Thus , befor e long , th e Britis h wer e involve d i n regulatin g religiou s fairs , pilgrimages , an d th e like . Also , the y wer e graduall y draw n int o th e supervisio n o f temples. " I n 1805
, Covemo r

Cenera

l Ceorg e Barlo w "ordere d (the ) Britis h collectio n o f a tax " fo r managin g th e Jagannat h templ e i n Pur i an d fo r payin g th e priest s an d officers , a practic e tha t wa s earlie r followe d b y th e Marath a ruler s who m th e Britis h succeeded. ^ A simila r ta x wa s levie d i n othe r tem - ple s too . Althoug h th e Britis h abandone d th e practic e afte r som e years , accordin g t o Potts , "ove r a 17-yea r perio d th e governmen t reape d a ne t profi t o f £99,20 5 fro m Jagannath ; an d £445,94 1 an d

£159,42

9 fro m Gay a an d Allahaba d respectivel y ove r a 16-yea r pe - 6 . Ibid . 7 . Th e DM K (Dravid a Munnetr a Khazagam ) an d th e AIADM K (Al l Indi a Ann a Dravid a

Munnetr

a Khazagam ) ar e regiona l politica l partie s o f Tami l Nadu . The y ar e offshoot s o f th e

Dravid

a Khazaga m (DK ) movemen t starte d b y Pedya r Ramaswam i Naickar - a wel l know n atheist . Th e D K movemen t wa s avowedl y atheisti c an d anti-Bralimanica l i n it s ideology . On e o f th e "Golde n Sayings " o f Naicka r i s a s follows : Ther e i s n o God . Ther e i s n o God . Ther e i s n o Go d a t all . Th e invento r o f Go d i s a fool . Th e propagato r o f Go d i s a scoundrel . Th e worshippe r o f Go d i s a barbarian." ' Bot h th e DM K an d AIADM K swea r b y th e intel - lectua l legac y o f Naicker . Ye t tha t ha s no t prevente d the m fro m usin g th e resource s o f th e templ e fo r furtherin g thei r politica l objectives . 8 . Rober t Eri c Frykenberg , "Th e Emergenc e o f Mode m 'Hinduism ' a s a Goncep t an d a s a n

Institution

: A Reappraisa l Wit h Specia l Referenc e t o Sout h India, " i n Hinduism Reconsid- ered, ed . Gunthe r D . Sontheime r an d Herman n Kulk e (Ne w Delhi : Manoha r Publications , 1991)
, 34-38
. 9 . Danie l E . Potts , "Missionarie s an d th e Beginning s o f th e Secula r Stat e i n India, " i n Essays in Indian History, ed . Donova n William s an d E . Danie l Pott s (Bombay : Asi a Publishin g House , 1973)
, 127
.

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 51

riod. " Thus , i n additio n t o a for m o f socia l control , interventio n i n re - ligiou s matter s wa s als o a lucrativ e proposition . Th e Britis h intervene d agai n i n religiou s matter s whe n the y codi - fie d Hind u an d Musli m crimina l an d civi l law s t o facilitat e th e admini - stratio n o f justic e an d collectio n o f revenues . Sinc e crimina l an d civi l laws , particularl y th e later , derive d thei r legitimac y from , an d wer e i n fac t draw n from , religiou s sources , th e colonia l "systematization " o f law s inevitabl y involve d intrusio n int o th e real m o f religion . Beside s reifyin g a n uppe r cast e versio n o f "Hinduism " an d rigidifyin g canonica l laws , th e colonia l trespasses , albei t i n th e nam e o f streamlinin g th e dis - pensatio n o f justice , se t a preceden t fo r th e state' s encroachmen t int o th e domai n o f religion .

Likewise

, th e Enlightenment-inspire d socia l reforms tha t th e Brit

-ish introduced (such as abolition oisati, a ban on child marriages, etc.)legitimized the supremacy of the state over scripture and religion inmatters that had deleterious social consequences. Few would complainabout the legitimate role of the state as social reformer. But the sub-liminal imperial agenda was to accentuate the benig^nity of colonial ruleand estabhsh the superiority of Western notions of fairness, justice, andother virtues. Understandably, the postcolonial Indian state has madefull use of this colonial precedent and has often intruded into religiousmatters in ways that have had the effect of ironing out the rich plurali-ties of Indian society and rendering it more amenable to centralizedauthoritarian administration.

Th e thir d facto r precludin g tota l separatio n o f religio n fro m politic s pertain s t o th e nationalis t traditio n o f usin g Hind u religiou s idio m fo r mas s mobilizatio n durin g th e freedo m movement . Leader s o f th e

Congress

, notabl y Ba l Cangadha r Tila k an d Gandhi , liberall y use d themes , motifs , an d metaphor s fro m Hinduis m t o rall y disparat e sec - tion s unde r th e banne r o f anti-colonialism . Gandh i hel d u p th e mille - naria n visio n o f Rama Rajya - the egalitaria n an d prosperou s regim e o f Lor d Rama - a s th e pos t independenc e scenario . Tilal c provide d a na - tionalisti c interpretatio n o f th e Bhagavad Gita an d exhorte d peopl e t o serv e th e motherlan d regardles s o f conseq^uences . H e als o starte d th e celebratio n o f th e birthda y o f th e Maratn a rule r Shivaj i t o promot e communitaria n solidarit y amon g th e Hindus . Thes e strategie s success - full y camouflage d myria d inne r contradictions , schisms , castes , an d communa l fragmentations , an d forge d a united , pan-Hind u identit y fo r strugglin g agains t th e migh t o f Britis h imperialism . Th e nationalis t strategy , nowever , als o ha d th e long-ter m consequenc e o f routinizin g th e invocatio n o f religiou s motif s fo r patentl y politica l purposes .

Whethe

r o r no t suc h a fusio n o f religio n an d politic s i s desirabl e i s a fu - til e question , althoug h muc h academi c energ y ha s bee n waste d o n it . Th e fac t t o b e note d ner e i s tha t religio n ha s th e innat e capacit y t o pro - vid e enormou s symboli c an d materia l resource s t o thos e wh o harnes s 10 . Ibid. , 131
.

52 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

it s force s adeptly . B y usin g religio n fo r it s pohtica l purposes , th e Con - gres s provide d a lastin g sea l o f approva l o n suc h us e an d thereb y

Blocke

d th e possibilit y o F divorcin g politic s fro m religion . Th e fourt h facto r emphasizin g th e unit y o f religio n an d politics , particularl y i n th e India n context , pertain s t o th e innat e peculiaritie s o f th e variou s religiou s traditions , prominen t amon g whic h i s thei r refusa l t o dichotomiz e th e sphere s o f religio n an d politics . Fo r example , th e trouble d origin s an d lon g histor y o f Sikhism' s persecutio n a t th e hand s ofth e Mughals , heightene d b y lac k o f protectio n fro m Hind u kings , le d t o th e accentuatio n o f "self-protection ' i n th e Sik h tradition " an d th e indivisibilit y o f mir i (politics ) an d piri (spirituality).' ^ I n fact , th e cen - tralit y o f thi s notio n ca n b e gauge d fro m th e fac t tha t i t ha s bee n give n a n emblemati c statu s i n Sikhis m i n th e for m o f tw o swords , on e sym - bolizin g miri an d th e othe r piri, tha t severa l Sik h gum s sported . I n Isla m an d i n certai n reading s o f th e Hind u tradition , th e importanc e o f fusin g spiritua l an d politicalpowe r an d thei r mutuall y reinforcin g char - acte r nav e bee n underscored . Clearl y then , th e religiou s tradition s o f Indi a d o no t provid e a salubriou s climat e fo r th e entrenchmen t o f th e

Wester

n notio n o f secularism .

Finally

, India' s transitio n t o modernity , thoug h painfu l an d slow , ha s unleashe d force s tha t hav e reinforce d th e connectio n betwee n th e secula r an d th e sacerdota l realms . Eve n a t th e tim e o f independenc e i n 1947
, whe n India' s passag e t o modernit y wa s inchoate , i t wa s stil l enoug h t o revea l th e potentia l dividend s religiou s issue s coul d rea p i n politics . A n illuminatin g exampl e i s th e censu s operation s launche d b y th e Britis h a s par t o f tKei r attemp t t o contro l tn e "natives. " Severa l scholar s hav e commente d o n ho w thi s proces s heightene d th e aware - nes s o f caste , communal , an d religiou s identities. ' I n fact , thi s wa s on e o f th e chie f factor s tha t provide d impetu s fo r th e growt h o f Hind u nationalism . I t wa s th e Al l Indi a Censu s o f 187
1 tha t reveale d tha t th e "twic e bom " uppe r caste s comprise d jus t a littl e ove r 1 5 percen t o f th e tota l populatio n whil e th e Musli m an d th e untouchabl e communitie s 11 . T.N . Madan , "Secularizatio n an d th e Sik h Religiou s Tradition, " Social Compass 33
, nos . 2-3 , (1986) ; 259
. 12 . Joyc e Pettigrew , quote d i n Harjo t Oberoi , "Sik h Fundamentalism : Translatin g Histor y int o Theory, " i n Fundamentalisms and the State, ed . Marti n E . Mart y an d R . Scot t Appleb y (Chicago , III. : Th e Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1993
) 278
. 13 . Ibid . 14 . Arju n Appadurai , "Numbe r i n th e Colonia l Imagination, " i n Orientalism and the Post- colonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia, ed . Caro l A . Breckenridg e an d Pete r va n de r Vee r (Philadelphia , Pa. : Universit y o f Philadelphia , 1993)
, 314-39
; Bernar d S . Cohn , "Th e Census , Socia l Structur e an d Objectificatio n i n Sout h Asia, " i n Bernar d S . Cohn , An

Anthrojiologist

Among the Historians and Other Essays (Ne w Delhi : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1987)
, 224-54
; Rober t E . Frykenberg , "Hind u Fundamentalis m an d th e Structura l

Stabilit

y o f India, " i n Fundamentalisms and the State, ed . Marti n E . Mart y an d R . Scot t Ap - pleb y (Chicago , 111.
: Th e Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1993)
, 233-55
; Sudipt a Kaviraj , "Relig - io n an d Identit y i n India, " Ethnic and Racial Studies 20 , no . 2 (April , 1997)
: 239
.

VARIANT MEANINCS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 53

togethe r constitute d approximatel y 4 5 percen t o f th e population.'

^The upper castes then realized that they could retain their hegemonyonly by forging a pan-Hindu identity that included the lowly peasantcastes, the untouchables, and the aborigines. Though caste-basedenumeration has been abandoned since independence, census stilltriggers communal paranoia, particularly between Hindus and Mus-lims.

T o stat e tha t th e Wester n notio n o f secularis m i s incompatibl e wit h th e India n contex t doe s no t mea n tha t secularis m itsel f ha s n o plac e i n th e India n polity.' " Ther e i s Httl e meri t i n th e argumen t tha t sinc e In - di a i s a lan d o f severa l religions , i t ca n neve r b e secula r i n an y shape , manner , o r form . Essentializin g th e religiou s an d conflict-pron e natur e o f India n societ y wa s on e o f th e pe t strategie s o f Britis h colonialist s t o justif y thei r "civilizin g mission. " Clearly , i t ca n b e n o one' s case , excep t perhap s tha t o f som e Anglophiles , tha t Indi a i s unsuite d fo r secularis m o r tha t i t lack s th e maturit y t o pu t i n plac e a n arrangemen t fo r th e ami - cabl e resolutio n o f issue s o f religio n an d politics . Evidently , give n tli e peculiaritie s o f th e India n situation , i t i s imperativ e tha t w e star t wit h a particularl y "Indian " connotatio n of " secularism , on e tha t i s workabl e i n it s milieu .

SECULARIS

M ACCORDIN G T O TH E INDIA N CONSTITUTIO N I n spit e o f al l th e controvers y i t ha s generated , th e ter m "secular

-ism" has not been explicitly defined in the Indian Constitution where itis mentioned only twice: once in the preamble, which states that Indiaresolves to be a "sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic"; andin Article 25, clause 2, wiich authorizes the state to frame laws "regu-lating or restricting economic, financial, political or other secular activ-ity which may be associated with religious practice.""

Ye t scholarl y an d judicia l opinion s ar e almos t unanimou s tha t th e spiri t o f secularis m i s containe d i n th e variou s provision s o f Article s 14 - 1 7 an d 25-30
. Th e issue s wit h whic h thes e Article s dea l ar e a s follows :

Articl

e 1 4 provide s tha t th e stat e shal l no t den y t o an y perso n equalit y befor e th e la w o r th e equa l protectio n o f th e law s withi n th e territor y o f India .

Articl

e 1 5 prohibit s discriminatio n o n ground s o f religion , race , caste , sex , o r plac e o f birth . 15 . Frykenberg , "Hind u Fundamentalis m an d th e Structura l Stabilit y o f India, " 233-55
. 16 . V . P . Luther a ha s take n th e separatio n o f stat e an d churc h a s th e definin g criterio n o f secularis m an d ha s argue d i n hi s boo k tha t Indi a "i s no t an d canno t b e a secula r state. " Thi s i s a narro w understandin g o f secularis m an d clearl y overlook s th e positiv e aspect s o f India n secularism , howeve r truncate d i t is . Fo r details , se e V.P . Luthera , Concept of the Secular State and India (Calcutta : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1965)
. 17 . P.K . Majumda r an d R.P . Kataria , The Constitution of India, 8t h ed . (Ne w Delhi : Orien t

Publishin

g Gompany , 1996)
.

54 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

Articl

e 1 6 ensure s equalit y o f opportunit y i n matter s o f publi c employment . Affirma - tiv e actio n policie s fo r th e amehoratio n o f th e untouchables , tribal s an d backwar d castes , classes , an d communitie s ar e exempte d fro m thi s provision .

Articl

e 1 7 abolishe s untouchabilit y an d make s it s practic e a punishabl e offence .

Articl

e 2 5 provide s fo r freedo m o f conscienc e an d fre e profession , practic e an d propa - gatio n o f religio n subjec t t o publi c order , morality , an d health . I t confer s o n th e stat e th e righ t t o regulat e o r restric t an y economic , financial , political , o r othe r secula r activ - it y whic h ma y b e associate d wit h religiou s practice . Also , i t stipulate s tha t th e stat e ca n mak e an y la w providin g fo r socia l welfar e an d refor m o r th e throwin g ope n o f Hind u rehgiou s institution s o f a pubh c characte r t o al l classe s o f an d section s o f Hindus . Her e "Hindu " include s peopl e professin g th e Sikh , Jaina , o r Buddhis t religions .

Articl

e 2 6 provide s freedo m t o manag e religiou s affairs , subjec t t o publi c order , moral - ity , an d health .

Articl

e 2 7 state s tha t n o perso n shal l b e compelle d t o pa y an y taxe s th e proceed s o f whic h ar e specificall y appropriate d i n paymen t o f expense s fo r th e promotio n o r main - tenanc e o f an y particula r religio n o r religiou s denomination .

Articl

e 2 8 state s tha t n o religiou s instructio n shal l b e provide d i n an y educationa l insti - tutio n wholl y maintaine d ou t o f stat e funds . Articl e 28(3
) say s tha t n o perso n attendin g a n educationa l institutio n recognize d b y th e stat e o r receivin g ai d ou t o f stat e fund s shal l b e require d t o tak e par t i n an y religiou s worshi p conducte d i n suc h a n institutio n excep t (i n th e cas e o f a minor ) wit h hi s o r he r guardian' s consent .

Articl

e 2 9 offer s protectio n o f th e cultura l an d educationa l rights o f minorities , t t pro - vide s tha t an y sectio n o f citizen s havin g a distinc t language , script , o r cultur e o f it s ow n shal l hav e th e right t o conserv e th e same .

Articl

e 3 0 guarantee s tha t al l minorities , whethe r base d o n religio n o r language , shal l hav e th e right t o establis h an d administe r educationa l institution s o f thei r choice . Fro m th e aforementione d articles , i t i s apparen t tha t India n secu - larism , amon g othe r things , primaril y mean s tha t th e stat e canno t es - tablis h o r practic e an y religion ; us e publi c revenue s fo r promotin g an y religion ; an d tha t i t shoul d ensur e equalit y befor e la w fo r al l it s citizens , irrespectiv e o f thei r caste , class , race , sex , religion , an d s o on." *

Keepin

g i n min d th e spiri t o f thes e article s an d th e debate s o f th e

Constituen

t Assembly , th e Suprem e Cour t o f Indi a ha s uphel d th e secula r characte r o f tri e Constitutio n i n severa l cases . I n th e landmar k

Keshavanand

Bharati v. State of Kerala, a ful l benc h o f thirtee n judge s pronounced , inter alia, tha t secularis m i s a n inalienabl e par t o f th e Dasi c stmctur e ofth e India n Constitutio n an d tha t i t i s sacrosanct.' " A simila r mlin g wa s give n i n Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain an d mor e 18 . Upendr a Baxi , "Th e 'struggle ' fo r th e Redefinitio n o f Secularis m i n India : Som e Prelimi - nar y Reflections, " Social Action 4 4 (Jan-March , 1994)
: 18-19 ; Rober t D . Baird , "'Secula r State ' an d th e India n Constitution, " i n Religion in Modem India, ed . Rober t D . Bair d (Ne w Delhi : Manoha r Publications , J981) , 389-416
. 19 . Baxi , "Th e 'Struggle ' fo r th e Redefinitio n o f Secularis m i n India : Som e Preliminar y Re - flections. "

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 55

recently , i n Bommai v. Union of I t i s on e thing , however , t o uphol d th e principl e o f secularis m an d quit e anothe r t o defin e i t precisel y an d la y dow n way s o f implementin g it . Unfortunately , littl e consensu s exist s o n thes e issues . Sinc e secular - is m ha s no t bee n specificall y defined , i t lend s itsel f t o varyin g interpre - tations , dependin g o n th e ideologica l predilection s o f th e interpreter . Wit h n o unanimit y o n th e impor t o f severa l ke y expressions , ther e i s houn d t o b e a grea t dea l o f confusion . What , fo r instance , doe s th e ter m "Hinduism " stan d for ? I s i t a religion ? O r i s i t a "wa y o f life? " Wh o i s a Hindu ? Ho w doe s on e distinguis h betwee n religio n an d cul - ture ? Wha t protectio n ca n th e Constitutio n offe r t o minoritie s i f a pro - vincia l governmen t pursue s a patentl y communa l Hind u agend a an d argue s tha t i t i s providin g patronag e t o India n cultur e which , i n an y case , i s predominantl y Hindu ?

Similarly

, wh o ar e th e minorities ? Ar e Hindu s i n th e stat e o f Kash - mi r t o b e considere d minoritie s sinc e Muslim s outnumbe r the m i n tha t state ? Ca n Ary a Samaji s clai m minorit y statu s i n Punja b o n th e basi s o f thei r smalle r numerica l strength ? I t i s als o no t clea r whethe r "mi - norities " righ t t o establis h an d administe r educationa l institution s o f thei r choic e include s th e procedur e an d metho d o f admissio n an d se - lectio n o f students . Strang e thoug h i t ma y seem , thes e question s hav e no t bee n addresse d satisfactoril y eithe r i n th e Constitutio n o r b y th e variou s courts . Severa l verdict s o f th e Suprem e Cour t relatin g t o mi - noritie s an d thei r righ t t o establis h an d administe r educationa l institu - tion s hav e bee n criticize d a s bein g unsatisfactor y o r a s conflictin g wit h previou s judgement s o f th e Court . Ther e i s a grea t dea l o f confusio n arisin g fro m ambiguitie s i n th e variou s provision s concernin g secularism . Ill-define d statute s hav e provide d roo m fo r exploitatio n wit h impunit y i n th e nam e o f minorit y rights . A s w e hav e seen . Articl e 3 0 give s minoritie s th e righ t t o establis h an d administe r educationa l institution s o f thei r choice . It s origina l in - tentio n wa s t o ensur e tha t the y hav e th e freedo m t o tak e institutiona l measure s fo r th e preservatio n an d propagatio n o f thei r culture , lan - guage , value s an d s o on . Henc e th e federa l an d provincia l govern - ment s hav e provide d minorit y institution s a greate r measur e o f auton - om y i n severa l matter s suc h a s day-to-da y administration , appointment s an d promotions . Thi s immunit y fro m th e usua l regulator y mechanism s o f th e govemmen t i s meant , ideally , fo r th e nurturanc e o f minorit y educationa l an d cultura l right s untrammelle d b y bureaucrati c norms . Thoug h laudable , i t ha s ha d unsavor y consequences . Severa l Christia n an d Musli m bodie s hav e starte d lucrativ e (mainl y medica l an d engi - neering ) professiona l college s an d enriche d themselve s b y chargin g ex - orbitan t "capitatio n fees " fro m students . The y resis t al l attempt s b y th e stat e t o preven t exploitatio n o f student s b y invokin g th e ple a tha t the y ar e minorit y institution s an d tha t th e measure s o f th e govemmen t 20 . Ibid .

56 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

ar e a n infringemen t o f thei r right s unde r Artiel e 30
. Thi s argumen t i s no t unassailable . First , th e right s unde r Artiel e 30
, lik e an y right s guarantee d unde r th e Constitution , ar e no t absolut e an d ar e subjec t t o th e polic e power s o f th e state . Hene e minoritie s eanno t abus e thei r right s an d clai m lega l indemnity . Second , an d mor e fundamentally , ho w ca n minoritie s clai m t o preserv e an d protec t thei r language , cultur e an d religio n envisage d unde r Articl e 3 0 b y run - nin g medica l o r engineerin g colleges ? Wh y i s i t tha t Muslim s d o no t ru n institution s fo r teachin g Urd u o r fo r propagatin g Islam ? Evidently , becaus e the y ar e no t profitahl e ventures . Educationa l entrepreneur s hav e exploite d th e vaguenes s o f Articl e 3 0 an d escape d pena l conse - quence s unde r th e guis e o f minorit y rights . No t surprisingly , therefore , Hind u nationalist s criticiz e th e ver y notio n o f secularis m an d deman d it s abolitio n citin g th e travestie s o f Articl e 30
. Wha t lend s furthe r credenc e t o suc h call s i s th e acquiescenc e o f th e govemmen t i n th e misdeed s o f minorit y institutions . Th e reason s fo r thi s capitulatio n ar e no t har d t o find. Politica l partie s ar e war y o f tak - in g toug h measure s t o regulat e minorit y educationa l institution s fo r fea r o f bein g brande d "communal. " Mor e important , th e cultivatio n o f th e elite s amon g th e minoritie s ofte n pay s de n electora l dividend s tha t ca n mak e th e differenc e betwee n winnin g a majorit y o r losin g it . Mos t erran t minorit y institutions , therefore , manag e t o dodg e puni - tiv e measures . The y continu e t o flouris h wit h littl e accountabilit y fo r thei r act s o f omissio n an d commission . Th e upsho t o f al l thi s i s tha t man y influentia l religiou s group s withi n Hinduis m hav e starte d de - mandin g minorit y status , wit h al l th e attendan t privileges . Suc h de - mands , nowever , ar e ofte n predicate d o n dubiou s ground s an d ar e aime d a t circumventin g th e rul e o f law . Th e eas e ofth e Ramakrishn a

Mission,^

' a Hind u religiou s bod y founde d b y Swam i Vivekanand a fo r propagatin g th e teaching s o f Sr i Ramakrishna , i s a n interestin g exam - ple . WH O I S A HIND U AN D WH O AR E TH E MINORITIES ? TH E CAS E O F TH E RAMAKRISHN A MISSIO N Th e Ramakrishn a Missio n (th e Mission , henceforth ) run s th e

Vivekanand

a Centenar y Colleg e a t Rahar a i n Wes t Bengal . Founde d i n 196
1 wit h financial suppor t fro m th e federa l an d provincia l govern - ments , th e Colleg e operate s o n grant s fro m th e govemmen t o f Wes t

Bengal

. Thoug h th e govemmen t fund s thi s institution , i t wa s allowe d a fre e han d i n administratio n an d wa s no t require d t o follo w th e norm s o f managemen t lai d dow n fo r regula r colleges . Th e Wes t Benga l gov - 21
. Fo r a detaile d accoun t ofth e Ramakrishn a Missio n case , se e M.D . McLean , "Ar e Raina - krishnaite s Hindus ? Som e Implication s o f Recen t Litigatio n o n th e Question, " South Asia 14 , no . 2 (1991) : 99-117
.

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 57

emment , for example , di d no t insis t o n a governin g bod y for runnin g th e college . I t wa s als o exempte d fro m th e statutor y regulation s con - cernin g appointment s an d servic e condition s o f teacrier s tha t appl y t o othe r colleges . Th e reason s fo r specia l treatmen t fo r thi s colleg e ar e no t clear . I n 1978
, whe n th e colleg e wante d t o appoin t a principa l o f it s choice , teacher s proteste d an d demande d tha t th e managemen t follo w norm s lai d dow n fo r government-funde d college s i n matter s o f ap - pointment . Th e Mission , whic h run s th e college , refuse d t o oblige .

Consequently

, fiftee n lecturer s challenge d thi s decisio n i n th e Calcutt a Hig h Cour t i n 1980
. Th e teacher s pleade d tha t th e Cour t shoul d direc t th e colleg e t o follo w th e Wes t Benga l Colleg e Teacher s (Securit y an d

Service

) Ac t o f 197
5 an d th e Wes t Benga l Colleg e Servic e Commissio n Ac t o f 197
8 tha t appl y t o othe r college s regardin g appointments . The y als o argue d tha t th e colleg e shoul d b e aske d t o form a governin g bod y a s pe r th e norm s o f th e government . Jus t a s thi s disput e wa s heatin g up , th e Lef t Front-le d Wes t Benga l governmen t directe d th e colleg e t o constitut e a governin g bod y lik e an y othe r college . Alarme d b y wha t i t considere d "infringement " o n it s administrativ e freedom , th e Missio n pleade d i n cour t tha t i t wa s a minorit y institutio n an d henc e mus t b e allowe d th e autonom y assure d unde r Articl e 30
. Th e Mission' s argumen t wa s tha t i t wa s a religiou s minorit y follow - in g an d propagatin g th e cul t o f Sr i Ramakrishn a (1836-86) , a Bengal i mystic . I t maintaine d tha t i t followe d a separat e religion , "Ramakrish - naism, " base d o n "neo-advaitabad"^^ an d tha t it s follower s wer e "Ramakrishnaites " an d no t Hindus . Th e Missio n als o argue d tha t

Ramakrishnais

m "include s th e basi c virtue s o f Hinduis m an d particu - larl y th e Hind u spiri t bu t doe s no t exhaus t itsel f i n th e Hind u Relig - ion." ^ I t too k grea t pain s t o distinguis h itsel f fro m Hinduis m and , whil e agreein g tha t th e forme r i s har d t o define , proceede d t o fix it s at - tribute s an d thos e o f Ramakrishnaism . Briefly , th e Missio n claime d tha t Hinduis m i s base d o n belief s i n "(a ) rebirt h an d pre-existence , (b ) a larg e numbe r o f gods , an d (c ) Nirvan a a s a goa l whic n ca n b e reache d b y no t on e bu t b y man y way s an d means , and^base d o n th e Vedas , bot h doctrinall y an d rituall y (sic)."'^'' Ramakrishnaism , o n th e othe r hand , 22
. Th e teaching s o f Sr i Ramakrishn a ar e base d o n Advait a Vedanta . Advaita , meanin g non - dualism , i s on e o f th e thre e school s o f though t i n Vedant a whic h i n tur n i s on e o f th e si x or - thodo x system s o f India n Philosophy . Bot h Ramakrishn a an d hi s chie f discipl e Swam i

Vivekananda

, particularl y th e latter , popularize d a n all-inclusive , syncretis t versio n o f Ad - vait a Vedant a an d taugh t tha t i t i s a vali d mean s o f attainin g Trut h tha t i s availabl e t o th e . follower s o f al l religions , includin g Isla m an d Christianity . Thi s opennes s o f approac h an d interpretatio n wa s mean t t o brin g abou t th e "harmon y o f al l religions " an d i s a n innovatio n tha t traditiona l Vedant a doe s no t emphasize . Henc e th e clai m tha t the y follo w "neo - advaitabad " o r neo-Advaita . 23
. Quote d i n McLean , "Ar e Ramakrishnaite s Hindus ? Som e Implication s o f Recen t Liti - gatio n o n th e Question, " 104
. 24
. Ibid .

58 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATF

taugh t Ne o Vedant a base d o n th e "experimenta l dat a provide d b y Sr

iRamakrishna and is founded wholly upon his immediate certitude."^ Itwas further claimed that Ramakrishnaism rejected the caste system,"has its separate Cod, separate name, separate church, separate wor-ship, separate community, separate organisation and above all separatephilosophy. . . ."^^

Th e Mission' s definitio n o f Hinduis m draw s heavil y o n Orientalis t scholarship . Critica l student s o f Hinduis m kno w tha t Hindu s i n variou s part s o f Indi a d o no t subscrib e t o th e tenet s mentione d b y th e Mission . I n fact , recen t critica l scholarshi p i s almos t unanimou s tha t "Hinduism " i s a descriptiv e labe l coine d b y Orientalis t scholarship ; i t lack s universa l validit y an d ha s littl e analytica l o r explanator y potential.^ ' A s fo r th e "Ramakrishnaism " tha t th e Missio n claim s t o propagate , i t i s als o no t quit e differen t fro m th e Brahmanica l versio n o f Hinduism . Besides , i t i s commo n knowledg e tha t bot h Sr i Ramakrishn a an d Swam i Vivekan - anda , th e tw o majo r figures i n th e movement , sa w themselve s a s Hin - du s an d describe d thei r teaching s a s such . Vivekanand a was , i n fact , describe d a s "a n aggressiv e Hind u Monk " whe n h e spok e a t th e Worl d

Parliamen

t o f Religion s a t Chicag o i n 1893
. Neithe r Ramakrishn a no r

Vivekanand

a claime d tha t the y wer e preachin g a ne w religion , the y bot h emphasize d thei r Hind u roots , neve r lef t th e Hind u fol d and , i n fact , strov e fo r th e reformatio n o f Hinduism . Th e teachings^ ' o f Sr i

Ramakrishn

a dra w heavil y fro m th e Upanishads , Bhagava d Cita , th e Vedas , th e Puranas , Ramayan a an d Mahabharata , an d s o on , al l belong - in g t o th e corpu s o f Hind u scriptures . An d ye t th e Missio n claime d tha t i t wa s a minorit y religion . Som e dedicate d la y "Ramakrishnaites " wh o als o considere d them - selve s Hindu s wer e s o outrage d b y th e absur d claim s o f th e Missio n tha t the y to o filed a cas e agains t i t alon g wit h th e colleg e teachers.^ ^ Th e Calcutt a Hig h Cour t uphel d th e Mission' s clai m o f bein g a sepa - rat e minorit y religio n an d provide d al l th e relie f i t ha d demanded . Th e aggrieve d petitioner s appeale d agains t th e verdic t i n th e Suprem e Court , whic h examine d th e Mission' s argument s a t grea t length . Th e cas e dragge d o n fo r te n year s an d a t on e stag e i n th e hearings . Justic e N . Venkatachala , on e ofth e judge s i n th e three-judg e bench , remarke d tha t th e Missio n wa s claimin g minorit y statu s onl y t o "escape " fro m th e provision s o f th e Wes t Benga l College s Ac t an d th e Teachers " Servic e 25
. Ibid . 26
. Ibid . 27
. Fo r details , se e Gunthe r D : Sontheime r an d Herma n Kulke , eds. , Hinduism Reconsid- ered (Ne w Delhi : Manoha r Publications , 1991)
; also , se e Frykenberg , "Hind u Fundamen - talis m an d th e Structura l Stabilit y o f India. " 28
. Fo r detail s o f th e teaching s o f Sr i Ramakrishna , se e The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (Ne w York : Sr i Ramkrishna-Vivekanand a Center , 1942)
. 29
. McLean , "Ar e Ramakrishnaite s Hindus ? Som e Implication s o f Recen t Litigatio n o n th eQuestion," 106.

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 59

Protectio

n Act. ^ Th e Suprem e Cour t finall y quashe d th e judgmen t o f th e Calcutt a Hig h Cour t an d rule d tha t th e Ramakrishn a Missio n wa s no t a religiou s minority . Th e Cour t ha d littl e optio n give n th e mas s o f evidenc e abou t th e Hind u origin s o f th e Mission . Th e Cour t wa s als o concerne d tha t i f th e Ramakrishn a Mission' s ple a wa s upheld , the n i t woul d b e floode d wit h appeal s fro m numerou s sub-sect s o f Hinduis m t o recogniz e the m a s minorit y religions , al l fo r th e sak e o f enjoyin g th e privilege s grante d unde r Article s 28
, 29
, an d 30
. Th e Ramakrishn a Missio n cas e demonstrate s tha t s o lon g a s th e admittedl y difficul t tas k o f definin g ke y term s lik e "Hinduism, " "mi - norities " an d th e lik e i s no t deal t wit h i n a n objectiv e manner , the y ar e likel y t o b e abused , an d i t woul d b e virtuall y impossibl e t o uphol d th e spiri t o f secularism . Neithe r th e stat e no r th e court s hav e deal t wit h thi s issu e satisfactoril y an d henc e ther e hav e bee n severa l anomalie s i n th e nam e o f secularis m an d minorit y rights . Second , th e privilege s provide d t o th e minoritie s hav e no t bee n properl y conceived ; neithe r ar e ther e prope r guideline s fo r thei r implementation . A s thing s stand , the y ar e primaril y mean t t o humo r th e elite s amon g th e Muslim s an d othe r minorities , no t t o benefi t thei r communitie s a s a whole .

ABERRATION

S O F INDIA N SECULARIS M Th e r)olymorphou s meaning s o f secularis m hav e provide d th e ra - tional e fo r act s tha t ar e har d t o justify . Fo r instance , th e federa l gov - ernmen t annuall y declare s seventee n day s a s publi c holiday s t o cele - brat e religiou s festival s o r t o commemorat e th e birt h o r deat h o f prophet s an d saint s o f th e majo r religion s o f India . Ever y part y tha t come s t o powe r add s t o th e list , an d thi s i s justifie d i n th e nam e o f th e secula r polic y o f givin g equa l respec t t o al l religions . Thus , i n 1990
, th e V . P . Sing h governmen t declare d th e birthda y o f th e Prophe t Moham - me d a publi c holiday - somethin g tha t i s unhear d o f i n severa l Islami c countries . Secula r India , therefore , ha s on e o f th e highes t numbe r o f publi c holiday s i n th e world - a luxur y tha t a poo r countr y ca n hardl y afford .

Similarly

, ever y yea r th e federa l governmen t subsidize s th e Ha j pil - rimag e fo r Muslims . I t provide s a subsid y o f Rs . 500
0 (approx . $112 ) o r th e airfar e o f ever y devote e an d make s specia l arrangement s fo r rentin g a n aircraf t fo r ferryin g pilgrims . Th e Ha j subsid y oeneRt s af - fluen t Muslim s whil e thei r les s fortunat e brethre n languis h i n depriva - tion . Sinc e th e Constitutio n mandate s tha t th e stat e shoul d concer n itsel f onl y wit h th e regulatio n o f secula r aspect s o f religiou s activity , ho w ca n an y governmen t justif y it s subsid y fo r th e Haj ? Hindus , Chris - tians , an d othe r religiou s group s ar e pique d b y thi s discriminator y sub - sidy , particularl y becaus e the y canno t ge t fundin g fo r pilgrimage s t o 30
. R . Venkataraman , "RK M Claimin g Minorit y Statu s t o 'Escape ' Laws : SC, " The Tele- graph, Calcutta , 1995
, 5 .gF

60 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

thei r ow n hol y places . Again , tw o fact s nee d t o b e emphasize d here . First , sinc e secular - is m remain s a nebulou s concept , th e mlin g part y ca n pursu e partisa n end s an d stil l clai m t o b e upholdin g secularism . Th e Congres s an d th e centris t partie s tha t rule d afte r independenc e use d secularis m t o ac - commodat e th e interest s o f elite s o f al l religiou s communitie s wit h th e intentio n o f winnin g acquiescenc e i n Hind u majoritaria n mie . Sec - ond , les t on e ge t th e impressio n tha t Muslim s alon e hav e bee n single d ou t fo r officia l patronage , i t shoul d b e note d tha t th e majorit y Hindu s hav e als o bee n ampl y compensated . I n fact , a heav y Hind u bia s i s buil t int o th e ver y notio n o f secularism . No t surprisingly , al l action s base d o n suc h a Hinduize d concep t favo r th e Hindus . TH E AMBIGUITIE S O F INDIA N SECULARIS M I t i s indee d tru e tha t i n a multicultural , multi-religiou s state , secu - laris m doe s no t len d itsel f t o precis e definition . Tryin g t o impos e defi - nit e feature s o n a nebulou s concep t i s likel y t o invit e seriou s objection s fro m differen t religiou s groups . Instead , i f th e concep t remain s some - wha t ambiguous , th e stat e ca n us e i t judiciousl y t o promot e intercom - muna l harmon y an d t o ensure , dependin g o n tn e peculiaritie s o f eac h case , tha t th e variou s communitie s receiv e equa l treatmen t an d justice .

Notwithstandin

g th e politica l an d lega l valu e o f ambiguity , i t mus t stil l b e bom e i n min d tha t a cmcia l concep t lik e secularis m canno t b e defme d s o vaguel y a s t o rende r i t meaningless . Whe n th e ambiguit y lend s itsel f t o politica l an d lega l abus e an d generate s intercommuna l acrimony, th e ver y purpos e o f secularism , tha t is , ensurin g harmon y an d amicabl e relation s amon g th e divers e communities , i s defeated . Th e bes t wa y ou t i s t o explicat e som e inviolabl e feature s o f secularis m an d conceiv e way s o f implementin g them . I n othe r words , thi s nobl e concept , ideally , mus t b e mad e operational . Th e ambiguitie s o f secularis m hav e no t escape d th e attentio n o f legislators . Ye t littl e ha s bee n don e t o explicat e th e ful l scop e of ^ it s meaning . Surprisingly , al l effort s i n thi s directio n hav e bee n deflected . A t th e tim e o f draftin g th e Constitution , Professo r K . T . Shah , a mem - be r o f th e Constituen t Assembly , mad e tw o attempt s t o enshrin e secu - laris m ^i n th e Constitutio n an d t o defm e it . Bot h attempt s wer e frus - trated . I n th e firs t instance , i n Novembe r 1948
, h e move d a n amendmen t t o Articl e 1 o f th e Constitutio n t o mak e i t read , "Indi a shal l b e a Secular , Federal , Socialis t Unio n o f States. " Thi s wa s re - jecte d becaus e th e Constituen t Assembly , particularl y th e chairma n o f th e draftin g committee . Dr . Ambedkar , fel t tha t th e goal s o f socialis m wer e alread y incorporate d i n th e variou s article s o f th e Draf t Constitu - tion . However , a s Bair d point s out , "th e 'secular ' par t o f th e amend - 31
. Baird , "'Secula r State ' an d th e India n Constitution, " i n Baird , ed. , Religion in Modem

India,

391
.

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 61

men t wa s neve r addressed. " Prof . Sha h trie d agai n t o defin e th e ter m "secularism " i n th e Consti - tutio n a mont h later . Thi s tim e h e wante d th e stat e t o commi t itsel f t o observin g tota l neutralit y i n al l matter s relatin g t o religion . Sha h pleade d fo r a stric t doctrin e o f separatio n betwee n th e stat e an d relig - ion . Perhap s becaus e thi s wa s considere d unworkable , th e Constituen t

Assembl

y rejecte d th e amendmen t withou t an y discussion.* ' Thu s ende d tw o earl y attempt s t o explicitl y commi t th e stat e t o a clea r defi - nitio n o f secularism . Indi a waite d anothe r twenty-seve n year s t o enshrin e secularis m a s on e o f th e objective s o f th e nation . O n 1 Septembe r 1976
, throug h th e 42n
d Amendmen t Act , passe d durin g a n intema l emergency , th e word s "secular " an d "socialis t wer e formall y adde d t o th e preambl e o f th e

Constitution

. Wh y di d th e Indir a Candh i govemmen t introduc e thes e term s i n th e preamble ? Mos t importantly , wh y di d th e stat e ad d onl y th e ter m "secular " an d no t tr y t o defin e it ? I n mid-1975 , a coalitio n o f force s oppose d t o th e delegitimize d an d cormp t regim e o f Prim e Ministe r Indir a Candh i ha d mounte d a seri - ou s challeng e t o he r leadershi p an d organize d country-wid e protest s agains t th e hegemon y o f th e Congress , whic h wa s rulin g a t th e cente r an d i n severa l provinces . Thi s coalitio n include d th e Hind u righ t le d b y th e RS S an d Ja n Sang h (th e foremnne r o f th e BJP) , disgmntle d

Congressmen

, socialists , Candhians , Sarvoday a activists , universit y student s an d NCOs . Sinc e th e Hind u righ t dominate d th e coalition , th e Congres s trie d t o diminis h it s legitimac y b y harpin g o n it s "com- ^ munal " ideolog y an d background . Th e inclusio n o f th e term s "secular " an d "socialist " i n th e Constitutio n wa s mean t t o bumis h th e pro-peopl e credential s o f th e Congres s an d t o discredi t th e ideolo ^ o T it s oppo - nents . Whe n th e coalitio n becam e voca l an d violent , Indir a Candh i impose d a stat e o f intema l emergenc y throughou t India , suspende d fundamenta l rights , an d incarcerate d tn e leader s o f th e majo r opposi - tio n parties , ostensibl y t o war d of f "threat s t o nationa l integrity " an d t o cur b growin g lawlessnes s an d socia l unres t instigate d b y oppositio n parties . A t th e heigh t o f th e repressio n unleashe d durin g th e emer - gency , Mrs . Candhi' s govemmen t passe d th e 44t
h Amendmen t Bil l (af - te r receivin g presidentia l assen t i t becam e th e 42n
d Amendmen t Act) . Ther e wa s littl e discussio n o n substantiv e issue s concemin g secularis m sinc e stalwart s o f th e oppositio n wer e al l i n prison . Whil e introducin g th e 44t
h Amendmen t Bil l i n th e Lo k Sabha , th e

Ministe

r fo r Law , Justic e an d Compan y Affairs , H . R . Cokhale , mad e a length y speec h o n it s far-reachin g consequences . Ye t abou t secularis m an d it s introdnctio n i n th e preambl e o f th e Constitution , thi s wa s al l h e ha d t o say : (T)h e objective s whic h w e ha d alway s i n view , namely , socialis m an d secularism , whic h 32
. Ibid. , 392
. 33
. Ibid. , 393
.

62 JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE

w e hav e trie d t o implement , will b e mor e an d mor e implemente d an d wil l b e mor e ac - curatel y an d correctl y reflecte d i n a basi c par t o f ou r Constitution , namely , th e Pream - ble . Le t anyon e sa y tha t "socialism " o r "secularism " i s incapabl e o f definitio n (sic). Well , i f tha t argumen t wer e t o b e accepted , eve n "democracy " i n tha t sens e i s incapa - bl e o f defmitio n because , i s i t not understoo d i n differen t way s i n differen t countries ? But , w e understan d wha t kin d o f democrac y w e stan d for . I n th e sam e way , w e under - stan d wha t "socialism " stand s fo r an d wha t "secularism " stand s for . Therefore , thes e criticism s ar e reall y intende d t o diver t th e attentio n fro m th e mai n focus . Th e mai n objectiv e o f th e amendmen t t o th e Preambl e t o m y mind , i s a ver y importan t an d fun - damenta l featur e i n th e presen t amendmen t Bil l t o th e Constitutio n (sic).'^ Prim e Ministe r Indir a Gandhi' s speec h o n th e 44t
h Amendmen tBill was no more illuminating: Th e foundin g father s o f ou r Constitutio n an d o f ou r countr y ha d intende d India n soci - et y t o b e secula r an d socialist . Thes e ar e no t ne w definitions . The y hav e guide d ou r law s al l thes e years . Al l w e ar e doin g no w i s t o incorporat e the m i n th e Constitutio n itsel f fo r the y rightly deserv e t o b e mentione d there . Th e specifi c mentio n o f thi s fac t i n th e Preambl e wil l provid e th e fram e o f referenc e t o all , t o ou r people , t o th e Gov - ernment , t o th e judiciar y an d t o th e world.' '

During

^ th e entir e cours e o f th e debate , no t a singl e membe r ob

-jected to the inclusion of the term "secular." The common refrain, inkeeping with the tone set by the Leader of the House, Indira Candhi,was that secularism was an inalienable part of the Indian Constitutionand that the bill made explicit what was already inherent in the Consti-tution. As we have seen earlier, there was a great deal of resistance ei-ther to question or oripose secularism or to demand that its content andramifications be worked out unambiguously. It always evoked respect-ful, if distant, obeisance from politicians of all hues. Expectedly, the billpassed in both houses of the Parliament and became law after receivingthe president's assent.

Scholarl

y opinion s abou t th e silenc e regardin g secularis m poin t t o man y reasons . First , sinc e th e Constitutio n o f Inm a wa s framec f agains t a backgroun d o f th e nightmaris h communa l holocaus t tha t erupte d i n th e wak e o f India' s partition , i t wa s decide d no t t o rak e u p furthe r con - troversie s concernin g th e rol e o f religio n i n publi c life . Also , i t wa s fel t tha t th e partitio n o f th e sub-continen t int o Indi a an d Pakista n ha d clinche d tTi e questio n o f religiou s an d nationa l identity . Thoug h mem - ber s o f th e Constituen t Assembl y routinel y describe d Indi a a s a "secu - la r state, " suc h tal k wa s basicall y mean t t o assuag e th e fear s o f th e mi - noritie s abou t thei r securit y i n Hindu-dominate d India.^ " Second , secularis m wa s a severel y conteste d an d thorn y issue , a s i s eviden t fron i th e acrimoniou s debate s i n th e Constituen t Assembly . Eve n withi n th e

Congress

, ther e wa s littl e unanimit y o n whethe r o r no t t o includ e secu - laris m i n th e Constitutio n and , i f so , wha t polic y implication s i t shoul d 34
. Debates Before Lok Sabha, Fift h serie s (Ne w Delhi : Lo k Sabh a Secretaria t 1976
) 59
-60. 35
. Ibid. , 146
. 36
. Baird , "'Secula r State ' an d th e India n Constitution, " 395
.

VARIANT MEANINGS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA 63

have . A s a matte r o f fact , al l issue s concemin g religio n wer e extremel y contentious . Ther e were , fo r example , rancorou s argument s abou t th e righ t t o propagat e one' s religion , wit h al l shade s ot" ^ opinio n fro m th e progressiv e t o th e fundamentalis t vyin g fo r supremacy . Thi s tensio n wa s onl y t o b e expected , give n tha t uppe r cast e Hindu s dominate d th e

Constituen

t Assembly.' ^ The y wer e resentfu l tha t Musli m obstinac y ha d resulte d i n th e vivisectio n o f th e countr y an d s o wer e reluctan t t o enshrin e a concep t tha t woul d b e fai r t o th e latter .

Accordin

g t o Baird , a t th e tim e o f independence , secularis m wa s deliberatel y lef t vagu e an d beref t o f a "universally-accepte d content. " H e argue s tha t th e "multivalence " o f th e concep t "enable d person s wit h a variety o f religiou s goal s t o us e i t a s a banne r unde r whic h the y coul d endeavou r t o buil d a natio n together."^* * I n othe r words , sinc e nation-buildin g ha d t o b e give n to p priority , th e Congres s di d no t wis h t o tak e a stron g positio n o n th e relation s betwee n stat e an d relig - ion . H e maintain s that , eve n i n 1976
, secularis m wa s endorse d becaus e i t continue d t o hav e " a minima l universall y accepte d meanin g couple d wit h a multivalen t nature." ^

Baird'

s thesis , thoug h apparentl y convincing , i s no t entirel y tenabl e becaus e i t seem s t o ignor e th e preponderan t influenc e o f th e hege - moni c Hind u meanin g o f secularism . India n secularis m i s firml y an - chore d i n a majoritaria n Hind u idio m an d philosophy . It s meanin g migh t see m t o b e "multivalent" ; bu t fo r th e manager s o f th e state , it s meanin g i s synonymou s