[PDF] Course Title: Cost Accounting for Decision Making




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[PDF] Course Title: Cost Accounting for Decision Making 1466_221_CostingforDecisionMaking_E.pdf

ProfessionalDevelopmentProgramme onEnriching

KnowledgeoftheBusiness,AccountingandFinancialStudies (BAFS)Curriculum

Course Title: Cost Accounting for Decision Making

1

LearningOutcomes

Uponcompletionofthiscourse,teacherparticipantsshould beableto: •applycostͲvolumeͲprofitanalysistechniquestoascertain theinterͲrelationshipsamongcosts,sellingprice,unitssold, breakevenpoint,targetprofitandmarginofsafety; •statetheassumptionsandlimitationsofcostͲvolumeͲ profitanalysis; •identifyanddifferentiaterelevant costsandirrelevant costsindifferentbusinessscenarios;and •makerecommendationtoshortͲtermbusinessdecisions. 2

SyllabusinHKDSEExamination

•Identify thenatureofvariouscostitemsandtheir relevancetodecisionͲmaking:sunkcosts,incremental costsandopportunitycosts. •Apply costingconceptsandtechniquesinbusiness decisions,e.g."hire,makeorbuy","acceptorrejectan orderataspecialprice","retainorreplaceequipment", "sellorprocessfurther" and"eliminateor retainan unprofitablesegment". •ConductcostͲvolumeͲprofitanalysistoassesstheeffects ofchangesincosts,sellingpriceandunitssoldonthe breakevenpointandtargetprofit. •Identifythenatureofvariouscostitemsandtheir relevancetodecisionͲmaking:sunkcosts,incremental costsandopportunitycosts. •Applycostingconceptsandtechniquesinbusiness decisions,e.g."hire,makeorbuy","acceptorrejectan orderataspecialprice","retainorreplaceequipment", "sellorprocessfurther" and"eliminate orretainan unprofitablesegment". •ConductcostͲvolumeͲprofitanalysistoassesstheeffects ofchangesincosts,sellingpriceandunitssoldonthe breakevenpointandtargetprofit. 3

WhatͲifanalysis

Contents

•Breakevenpoint •Salelevelrequiredtoachievetargetprofit •Marginofsafety •WhatͲifanalysis(Illustrations1&2) •Salesmix(Illustration3&4) •Relevantcostsvs.irrelevantcosts(Illustrations5&6) •Acceptorrejectanorder(Illustration7) •Hiredecision(Illustration8) •Makeorbuy(illustration9)•Retainorreplaceequipment(Illustration10) •Sellorprocessfurther(Illustration11) •Eliminateorretainanunprofitablesegment(Illustration12)4

PriorKnowledgeRequired

5

CostͲVolumeͲProfitAnalysis

(CͲVͲPAnalysis) (BreakevenAnalysis) 6

Whatisit?

•Breakeven=noprofit,orloss,thatis, -TotalSalesRevenue=TotalCosts(VariableCosts+

FixedCosts)

-TotalContribution=FixedCosts •Itstudieshowcost,revenueand production/salesvolumeaffectprofit •Twoapproaches: -ByFormula -ByGraph 7

BreakevenPoint-ByFormula

8 or where

SalesLevelRequiredtoAchieve

TargetProfit

9or

MarginofSafety-ByFormula

10

WhatͲifAnalysis

•Itstudieshowtheresultwillchangeifthe originaldatachanges. •Itanswersquestionssuchas: -Whatwillbethebreakevenpointifvariablecost perunitincreasedby5%? -Whatwillbetheprofitifsalesvolumeincreases by5%? 11

EffectsofChangesinCosts,SellingPrice

ontheBreakevenPoint 12

Illustration1

EffectofChangesinCostsonBreakevenPoint

•Amanufacturingcompanyproducesandsells asingleproductasfollows: •Thefixedcostperannumisestimatedtobe $600,000. 13

Sellingpriceperunit $250

Variablecostsperunit $150

Illustration1

EffectofChangesinCostsonBreakevenPoint

•Thesalesmanagerwouldliketoproposea changetopayasalesmanoncommission basisof$10perunitsoldratherthanonfixed monthlysalariesof$8,000permonth. •Whatwouldbethebreakevenpointsinunits forthe situationsbeforeandafterthe change? 14

Illustration1

EffectofChangesinCostsonBreakevenPoint

Breakevenpointbeforechange:

$600,000/($250Ͳ$150) =6,000units

Breakevenpointafterchange:

($600,000Ͳ$8,000x12)/[$250Ͳ($150+$10)] =5,600units 15

Illustration1

EffectofChangesinCostsonBreakevenPoint

•Itdoesnotmeanthattheproposedscenario isbetterthantheoriginalscenariobecauseof lowerbreakevenpoint. •Italldependsontheactualsalesvolume. •Forexample,ifthesalesvolumeis10,000 units,theprofitintheoriginal scenariowillbe $400,000(10,000x$100Ͳ$600,000)while thatinproposedscenarioitwillonlybe $396,000(10,000x$90- $504,000). 16

EffectsofChangesinCosts,SellingPrice

andUnitsSoldontheProfit 17

Illustration2

EffectsofChangesinCostsandUnitsSoldontheProfit

•Acompanyproducesandsellsasingle product.Inthecurrentyear,20,000unitswill besoldat$50each.Thefixedcostis$300,000 andtheprofitis$100,000. •Thecompanyisconsideringspending$30,000 tolaunchapromotioncampaigninthenext yeartoboostthesalesvolume by5%. •Thesellingpriceandotherfixedoverheadwill keepconstantoverthetwoyears. 18

Illustration2

EffectsofChangesinCostsandUnitsSoldontheProfit

Required1)Forthecurrentyear,calculate:

a) thebreakevenpoint inunits,and b) themarginofsafetyin%

2)Preparetheincomestatementsforboth

currentyearandnextyear.

3)Explainwhetherthepromotioncampaign

shouldbelaunched.19

Illustration2

EffectsofChangesinCostsandUnitsSoldontheProfit

1) a) Totalcontribution=$300,000+$100,000=$400,000

Contributionperunit=$400,000/20,000=$20

Breakevenpointinunits=$300,000/$20=15,000units

b) Marginofsafetyin%=(20,000Ͳ15,000)/20,000x100% =25%20

Illustration2

EffectsofChangesinCostsandUnitsSoldontheProfit

ContributionIncome

Statements

CurrentYear

NextYear

$ $

Sales($50perunit)

1,000,000

1,050,000

Variablecost($30perunit)

600,000

630,000

Totalcontribution

400,000

420,000

Less:Fixedcost

300,000

330,000

NetProfit

100,000

90,000

21
2)

Illustration2

EffectsofChangesinCostsandUnitsSoldontheProfit

3) Thepromotionshouldnotbelaunchedas

itwouldlowerthenetprofit. 22

Activity1

IllustrativeIntegratedQuestion

CostͲProfitͲVolumeAnalysis

23

Question(1)

•Amanufacturingcompanyproducesandsellsa singleproduct.Theaccountanthasjustpreparedthe company'sbudgetforthecomingyear.The budgeteddataisextractedasfollows:24

Salesvolume 90,000units

Fixedcosts $440,000

Variablecostsperunit $10

Loss $80,000

Question(2)

•Thedirectorsaredissatisfiedwiththebudgetedloss andsuggestproposalsforimprovement. •DirectorAsuggestsspending$50,000onadvertising toincreasesales.Hewishestoachieveatargetprofit of$100,000. •DirectorBsuggestsreducingsellingpriceby$1per unittoincreasesales.Heexpectsthatthesales volumewouldincreaseby80%. •DirectorCsuggestsbuyingamoreefficientmachine whichwouldreduceunitvariablecostsby50%.The usefullifeofthemachineis1year. 25

Question(3)

Requireda)ForDirectorA'sproposal,whatisthepercentage increaseinsalesrequiredtoachievethetarget profit? b)ForDirectorB'sproposal,whatwouldbetheprofit orloss? c) ForDirectorC'sproposal,whatwouldbethe maximumcostofthemachineforbreakeven?26

Answers

a) 50% b) Profit$46,000 c) $370,00027

ByGraph- BreakevenChart

28
0

Activity (Sales units)Sales revenue/Costs

Total costs

Variable

costs

Fixed

costs

Profit

Loss

Profit

SalesFixed

costs

Break-even

point

ByGroup- ContributionGraph

29
0

Total costs

Profit

Loss

Profit

Sales

Contribution

Activity (Sales units)Sales revenue/Costs

Break-

even point

Fixed

costs

Variable costs

ByGraph-ProfitͲVolumeGraph

30
0

Profit / Loss ($'000)

LossProfit

Break-even

point

Fixed

costs

Profit

Contribution

Activity

(Sales units)

BreakevenPointforSalesMix

Whenacompanyproducesmultipleproducts,it

isassumedthattherelativecombinationofthe productssold(salesunits)willbeconstant.31

Illustration3

BreakevenPointforSalesMix

•ProductXandProductYaresoldinsalesmixof3:1.

Detailsaboutthetwoproductsare:

•Thefixedcostis$30,000. •Whatisthebreakevenpointinunitsanddollars?32

ProductX

ProductY

Sellingpriceperunit

$5 $10

Variablecostperunit

$4 $3

Unitcontribution

$1 $7

Illustration3

BreakevenPointforSalesMix

Since1standardbatchconsistsof3unitsofproductX

and1unitofproductY,thebreakevenpointis9,000 unitsofproductXand3,000unitsofproductY . 33

Breakevenpoint(in$)34

Sales $

ProductX:9,000x$5

45,000

ProductY:3,000x$10

30,000

Breakevenpoint

75,000

Illustration3

BreakevenPointforSalesMix

Alternatively,thebreakevenpointin$canbe

calculatedbyusingthecontributionmargin ratio:

Contributioninstandardsalesmix

=$1x3+$7x1=$10

Sellingpriceinstandardsalesmix

=$5x3=$10x1=$2535

Illustration3

BreakevenPointforSalesMix

•Hence,thecontributionmarginratiois •Thebreakevenpointin$is36

Illustration3

BreakevenPointforSalesMix

•Continuewithillustration3.Asthemarketing managerobservesthatProductYismore profitable,heisconsideringspending additional$5,000onmarketingcampaignto boostthesalesofProductY.Itisestimated thatsalesvolumeofProductYcanbe increasedby1/3. •HowmanyunitsofProduct

Xshouldbesold

atleastinordertoachievebreakeven? 37

Illustration4

EffectofChangeinExpensesonSalesMix

$

Originalfixedcost

30,000

Marketingexpenses

5,000

ContributionfromProductY($7x3,000x4/3)

(28,000)

Uncoveredfixedcost

7,000 38

Illustration4

EffectofChangeinExpensesonSalesMix

Hence, number of units of Product X to be sold for achieving breakeven =

AssumptionsofCͲVͲPAnalysis

•Sellingpriceperunitandvariablecostperunit areconstant. •Fixedcostperperiodisconstant. •Productionunitsequalsalesunits. •Asingleproductissoldorthesalesmixis constant.39

LimitationsofCͲVͲPAnalysis

•Unitsellingpricemayvary,e.g.duetobulk discountsofferedtocustomers. •Unitvariablecostsperunitmayvary,e.g.due toeconomiesofscalesorovertimepremium etc. •Fixedcostsmaychangeatdifferentlevelsof activity,e.g.stepcosts,i.e.indifferent relevantranges,thefixedcost willvary. 40

CostClassification&Items

41
42
RelevantCostvs.IrrelevantCostRelevantCostRelevantCost

Costthatwillbe

changedbya decisionCostthatwillbechangedbya decisionIrrelevantCost

IrrelevantCost

Costthatwillnotbe

changedbya decisionCostthatwillnotbechangedbya decision 43

RelevantCosts

IncrementalCostIncrementalCost

Additionalcostwhich

willbespecifically incurredbecauseofa decisionAdditionalcostwhich willbespecifically incurredbecauseofa decision

OpportunityCostOpportunityCost

Benefitwhichwillbe

forgonewhenthe choiceofonecourseof actionrequiresan alternativecourseof actionbegivenupBenefitwhichwillbe forgonewhenthe choiceofonecourseof actionrequiresan alternativecourseof actionbegivenup 44

IrrelevantCost

SunkCostSunkCost

Costofaresource

alreadyacquiredand areunaffectedby choicebetween alternativesCostofaresource alreadyacquiredand areunaffectedby choicebetween alternatives

CommittedCostCommittedCost

Costwhichhasbeen

committedalthoughit hasnotbeenincurred orpaid.Costwhichhasbeen committedalthoughit hasnotbeenincurred orpaid. 45

MaterialCost:

HowRelevant?

46

Illustration5

MaterialCost:HowRelevant?

•Ajobrequires1,000unitsofmaterialXwhich havealreadybeenintheinventory. •Theywerepurchasedatacostof$8perunit. •Thematerialscanbesoldatanetrealizable valueof$12perunit. •Itcanalsobeused inanotherjobassubstitute for1,500unitsofmaterialYofwhichthe currentpurchasingpriceis$10. 47

Illustration5

RelevantCostforMaterialX

48

Analysis:

•Theoriginalpurchase priceofmaterialXis irrelevantsinceitisa sunkcost •Theopportunitycost wouldbethehigherof

NRVorCostingSavings,

i.e.$15,000 •Therefore,therelevant costofmaterialXis $15,000Analysis: •Theoriginalpurchase priceofmaterialXis irrelevantsinceitisa sunkcost •Theopportunitycost wouldbethehigherof

NRVorCostingSavings,

i.e.$15,000 •Therefore,therelevant costofmaterialXis $15,000

Labour Cost:

HowRelevant?

49

Illustration6

Labour Cost:HowRelevant?

Acompanyhasbeenofferedaspecialorder

whichrequires1,000directskilledlabour hours at$400perhour.Becauseoffullcapacityand limitedsupply,thedirectskilledlabour hours havetobedivertedfromexistingproductionof

500unitsofProductXwhichgivescontribution

of$300 perunit. 50

Illustration6

Labour Cost:HowRelevant?

RelevantCostsforDirect

Labour

$

IncrementalCost($400x1,000)

400,000

ContributionLost($300x500)

150,000550,000

51

ShortͲTermBusinessDecisions

52

FactorstoConsiderinBusiness

DecisionMaking

•Quantitativefactors:costvs.benefitanalysis inmonetaryterms. •Qualitativefactors:socialresponsibility, corporategoodwill,employeemoraleetc.53

Concentratethisinthiscourse

54

AcceptorReject

anOrderata

SpecialPrice

55

AcceptorReject

anOrderata

SpecialPrice

56

AcceptorReject

anOrderata

SpecialPrice

Illustration7

AcceptorRejectanOrderataSpecialPrice

Afirmcurrentlymakes50,000unitsofproductper

annumandsellsat$30each.Theoperating statementisasfollows:57 $

Sales(50,000x$30)

1,500,000

Less:Materials

(500,000)

Labour

(680,000)

Contribution

320,000

Less:FixedCosts

(200,000)

NetProfit

120,000

Illustration7

AcceptorRejectanOrderataSpecialPrice

Acustomeroffersanorderfor10,000unitsat

sellingpriceof$28each.

Iftheorderisaccepted:

•Fixedcostwouldincreaseto$250,000. •Extralabour wouldberequiredatovertime premiumof20%. •4%discountwouldbeobtainedforallmaterials.58

Illustration7

AcceptorRejectanOrderataSpecialPrice

CostͲBenefitAnalysisforAccepting

$ IncrementalBenefitsIncreaseinsalesrevenue(10,000x$28)

280,000

Savingsinmaterialcostforexistingproduction(500,000x4%)

20,000

300,000

IncrementalCostsMaterialcostforadditionalproduction($500,000/50,000x10,000x96%)

96,000

Labour costforadditionalproduction($680,000/50,000x10,000x120%)

163,200

Increaseinfixedcost($250,000Ͳ$200,000)

50,000

309,200

Decreaseinnetprofit

9,200 59

Illustration7

AcceptorRejectanOderataSpecialPrice

•Conclusion:Astheincrementalbenefitisless thantheincrementcost,theordershouldbe rejected. 60
61

HireorNotHire

62

HireorNotHire

63

HireorNotHire

Illustration8

HireorNotHire

•Acompanycurrentlyproduced1,000unitsof productXpermonthatunitvariablecostsof $50. •ProductXwassoldat$120perunit. •Thecompanyisconsideringhiringan additionalmachinewhichcanreducetheunit variablecoststo$48andincrease production by20%. •Themonthlyhirechargeis$200,000. 64

Illustration8

HireorNotHire

CostͲBenefitAnalysisforHiring

$

Savingsinvariablecostsforexistingproduction

[($50Ͳ$48)x1,000] 2,000

Increaseincontributionfromadditionalproduction

[($120Ͳ$48)x(1,000x20%)]

14,400

Increaseincontribution

16,400

Less:Hirecharge

20,000

Decreaseinprofit

3,600 65

Illustration8

HireorNotHire

•Conclusion:Sincehiringwouldleadtoa decreaseinprofit,itshouldnotbehired. 66
67

MakeorBuy

68

MakeorBuy

69

MakeorBuy

Illustration9

MakeorBuy

•Acompanyrequires800unitsofcomponentXspecificallyfor asingleorderandisconsideringmakingthecomponents itselforbuyingthemfromoutsidesupplier. •Inmaking,itrequires$3,000materials,100labour hoursat hourlyrateof$28tobedivertedfromotherteamswhichare idlebutcannot befiredbecauseoftheemploymentcontract. •Ifthecompanymakesthecomponentsitself,theexisting productionofproductYwillfallby100units.ProductY providesacontributionof$8perunit. •Thecomponentsaresoldatamultipleof1,000unitsat $4,500per1,000units.Anyexcess ofthedemandcanbereͲ soldatapriceof$1perunit. 70

Illustration9

MakeorBuy

RelevantCostforMaking

$

Materials

3,000

Contributionlost($8x100)

800

TotalRelevantCost

3,800 71

Since the labour is idle, the cost is irrelevant.

Illustration9

MakeorBuy

RelevantCostforBuying

$

Purchasecost

4,500

ReͲsaleofexcess[(1,000Ͳ800)x$1]

(200)

TotalNetRelevantCost

4,300 72

Illustration9

MakeorBuy

•Conclusion:Sincetherelevantcostformaking islowerthanthatofbuying,thecomponents shouldbemade. 73
74

Retainor

Replace

Equipment

75

Retainor

Replace

Equipment

76

Retainor

Replace

Equipment

Illustration10

RetainorReplaceEquipment

Acompanyisconsideringreplacinganoldmachine

withanewone.Detailsabouttheoldmachineandthe newmachineareasfollows:77

OldMachineOriginalCost

$1,000,000

Depreciatedamount

$800,000

Remainingusefullife

3years

Currentdisposalvalue

$10,000

Disposalvalueafter3years

Nil

Illustration10

RetainorReplaceEquipment

NewMachineCurrentpurchasecost

$300,000

Usefullife

3years

Disposalvalueafter3years

$60,000

78The new machine can reduce operating costs

by $80,000 per annum.

Illustration10

RetainorReplaceEquipment

CostͲBenefitAnalysisforReplacement

$ IncrementalBenefitsofReplacementTotalcostssaving(3x$80,000)

240,000

Disposalvalueofnewmachineafter3years

60,000

Currentdisposalvalueofoldmachine

10,000

310,000

Less:IncrementalCosts

Purchasecostofnewmachine

(300,000)

NetIncrementalBenefitsofReplacement

10,000

79

Note: Time value of money is ignored.

Illustration10

RetainorReplaceEquipment

•Conclusion:Sincereplacementwouldmakea netincrementalbenefit,itshouldbereplaced. 80
81

SellorProcess

Further

82

SellorProcess

Further

83

SellorProcess

Further

Illustration11

SellorProcessFurther

•AcompanyisconsideringwhethertoprocessasemiͲ finishedproductwhichhasbeenproducedattotal variablecostof$60,000andcanbesoldat$100,000. •IfthesemiͲfinishedproductisfurtherprocessedto makeitafinishedproduct,itcanbesoldat $220,000.Thecostsinvolved intheprocessareas follows: 84
$

Directmaterials

150,000

Directlabour

10,000

Overheads

180,000

Illustration11

SellorProcessFurther

•Contracthasbeensignedforthepurchaseofthe $150,000materials.Thematerialsareforspecial purposeandcannotbeusedinanotheralternative.

Ifitisnotused,itcanbesoldat$30,000.

•Overheadsinclude$70,000specifictofurther processandallocatedgeneraloverheadsof $110,000. •Thefinished productafterthefurtherprocesscanbe soldat$220,000. 85

Illustration11

SellorProcessFurther

$ IncrementalBenefitsfromFurtherProcessingIncreaseinsalesrevenue($220,000Ͳ$100,000)

120,000

RelevantCoststoCompletionDirectmaterials

30,000

Directlabour

10,000

Overheads

70,000

110,000

NetIncrementalBenefits

10,000

86

Illustration11

SellorProcessFurther

•Conclusion:Sincethebenefitoffurther processingisgreaterthanthecosts,further processingisrecommended. 87
88

Eliminate or

Retain an

Unprofitable

Segment

89

Eliminate or

Retain an

Unprofitable

Segment

90

Eliminate or

Retain an

Unprofitable

Segment

Illustration12

EliminateorRetainanUnprofitableSegment

ACompanyhastwodepartmentsproducingproductsX

andYrespectively.Thebudgetedoperatingstatement forthecomingyearissummarizedasfollows:

Ofthetotalcost70%isvariable,10%isspecificfixed

and20%isgeneralfixed.91

ProductX

ProductY

$ $ Sales

60,000

100,000

Less:TotalCost

70,000

80,000

NetProfit/(Loss)

(10,000)

20,000

Illustration12

EliminateorRetainanUnprofitableSegment

ContributionIncomeStatement

ProductX

ProductY

Total $ $ $ Sales

60,000

100,000

160,000

Less:Variablecost(70%oftotalcost)

49,000

56,000

105,000

Contribution

11,000

46,000

55,000

Less:Specificfixedcost(10%oftotalcost)

7,000 8,000

15,000

4,000

36,000

40,000

Less:Generalfixedcost(20%of$150,000)

30,000

Netprofit

10,000

92

Illustration12

EliminateorRetainanUnprofitableSegment

•Conclusion:Sincethedepartmentproducing productXmakescontribution,itshouldbe retained.Ifitiseliminated,theprofitwillbe only$6,000insteadof$10,000. 93

Activity2

IntegratedIllustrativeQuestion

94

Question(1)

Amanufacturingcompanyhasbeenaskedtoquotefor

aoneͲoffjobwhichwouldrequirethefollowing resources:

MaterialA1,000kgwouldberequired.Thematerialisused

regularlyinotherjobs.Currentlythereare4,000kgin theinventorywhichwaspurchasedat$8perkg.Itcan besoldat$7ifnotused.Thecurrentreplacementcost is$9perkg.95

Question(2)

MaterialBorMaterialC100kgwouldberequired.MaterialBisnotinthe inventoryandhastobeorderedatacurrentpriceof $15perkg.However,materialCcanbeusedto substitutematerialB.MaterialCisininventoryandhas beenpurchasedatacostof$20perkg. Itwas specificallypurchasedforuseinaproductlinewhich hasnowbeendiscontinued.Itcanbesoldatanet realizablevalueof$8perkg.Ifitisusedtosubstitute materialB,additionalconversioncostof$6perkghas tobeincurred. 96

Question(3)

SkilledlabourDirectskilledlabour costforthejobwouldbe$40,000.

Skilledlabour isinshortsupply.Iftheworkersworkfor

thisjob,theycannotworkforanotherjobwhichwould makeatotalcontributionof$5,000.97

Question(4)

UnskilledlabourUnskilledlabour receivingpaytotaling$16,000willbe transferredfromanotherdepartmentwhichwillrecruit additionallabour atatotalcostof$17,000including payandrecruitmentcosts.98

Question(5)

Machinehours50machinehourswouldberequired.Amachine currentlylyingidlewillbeusedinthejob.Detailsabout themachineryareasfollows:

Ifthemachineisnotused,themachinehourscanbe

hiredfromaleasingcompanywhichcharges$1,000 perhour.99

Depreciationduetouse $10,000

Currentnetrealizationvalue $240,000

Estimatednetrealizablevalueafteruse $200,000

Question(6)

RequiredCalculatetheminimumpricethatshouldbe

quotedforthejob.100

Answer

RelevantCosts

$

MaterialA

9,000

MaterialC

1,400

Skilledlabour

45,000

Unskilledlabour

17,000

Machinehours

40,000

112,400

101

FurtherReadings

Burgstahler,D.,Horngren,C.,Schatzberg,J.,Stratton,W.,&Sundem, G.(2008).IntroductiontoManagementAccounting,14thed.

UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall.Chapters2&5Ͳ6.

Drury,C.(2008).ManagementandCostAccounting,7thed.London: SouthͲWesternCengage Learning.Chapters8Ͳ9&11Ͳ12.

Horngren,C.T.,Datar,

S.M.,Foster,G.,Raian,M.&Ittner,C.(2009).

CostAccounting:AManagerialEmphasis,13thed.UpperSaddle

River:PrenticeHall.Chapters3&11.

Lucey,T.(2009).Costing,7thed.London:SouthͲWesternCengage

Learning.Chapters17&20Ͳ21.

102

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