The Problem of the Icchantika in the Mah?y?na Mah?parinirv??a

153_12526

THE JOURNAL

O F TH E INTERNATIONA L ASSOCIATIO N O F

BUDDHIS

T STUDIE S 0HS I *"»**$ *

EDITOR-IN-CHIE

F A. K. Narain

University

of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

EDITOR

S L. M.Joshi

Punjabi

University

Patiala,

India

Alexander

W. Macdonald

Universite

de Paris X

Nanterre,

France

Bardwell

Smith

Carleton

College

Northjield,

Minnesota, USA Ernst Steinkellner

University

of Vienna Wien, Austria fikido Takasaki

University

of Tokyo

Tokyo,

Japan

Robert

Thurman

Amherst

College

Amherst,

Massachusetts, USA

ASSISTAN

T EDITO R Roger Jackson

Volume

7 1984 Number 1

CONTENTS

I . ARTICLE S Th e Literatur e o f th e Pudgalavadins , by Thick Thien Chan 1 Moder n Japanes e Buddhology : It s Histor y an d Prob lematics , by Minora Kiyola 1 7

Marginali

a t o Sa-sky a Pandita s Oeuvre , by I..W.J. van dcr Kuijp H 7 Th e Proble m o f th e Icchanliha i n th e Mahayan a Mahd- parinin'dna Sutra, by Mhig-Wood Liu 5 7 Th e Sanmon-Jimo n Schis m i n th e Tenda i Schoo l o f Buddhism : A Preliminar y Analysis , by Neil

McMuUin

8 3 Th e Indravarma n (Avaea ) (baske t Inscriptio n Recon sidered : Furthe r Evidenc e fo r Canonica l Pas sage s i n Buddhis t Inscriptions , Iry Richard Salomon and Gregory Schopcn 10 7 Th e Tibeta n "Whee l o f Life" : Iconograph y an d dem ography , by (U'shc Sopa 12 5 Note s o n th e Buddha' s Threat s i n th e Digha Nikdya, by A. Syr kin 14 7 II . BOO K REVIEW S A Buddhist Spectrum, b y Marc o Pa l I i s (1) . Seyfor t Ruc-gg ) 15 9 The Heart of Buddhism, b y Takeuch i Yoshinor i (Pau l Griffiths ) 16 2 Paritta: A Historical and Religious Study of the Buddhist

Ceremony

for Peace and Prosperity in Sri Lanka, b y Lil y d e Silv a (Te r Ellingson ) 16 4 The Threefold Refuge in the Theravdda Buddhist Tradition, ed . Joh n Ros s Carte r

Buddhist

Images of Human Perfection, b y Natha n Kat z (Winsto n King ) 16 9 The Word of the Buddha: the Tripitaka and Its Interpreta tion in Therdvada Buddhism, b y Georg e I) . Bon d (Natha n Katz ) 17 3 III . PRESIDENTIA L ADDRES S Ascen t an d Descent : Two-Directiona l Activit y i n Bud dhis t Thought , by Gadjin M. Nagao 17 6 IV . NOTE S AN D NEW S A Repor t o n th e Sixt h Conferenc e o f th e IABS , Hel d i n Conjunctio n wit h th e 31s
t CISHAAN , Toky o an d Kyoto , Japan , Augus t 31-Septembe
r 7 , 198
3 18 4

The Problem of the Icchantika in the

Maha y an a Mahdparinirvana Sutra* by Ming-Wood Liu L The Buddha-Nature Doctrine and the Problem of the Icchantika I n th e Chines e Buddhis t Canon , ther e ar e tw o corpuse s o f text s whic h g o b y th e nam e o f th e Mahaparinirvdna-sutra (henceforth , MMS) . Th e firs t correspond s i n mai n t o th e Mahd- parinibhdna-suttanta i n th e Digha-nikdya o f th e Pal i Canon . Bein g essentiall y Hlnayan a i n outlook , i t ha s receive d littl e attentio n i n China . Th e second , whic h exhibit s al l th e feature s o f a Ma hayan a text , generate d immediat e enthusias m o n it s firs t intro ductio n int o Chin a i n th e earl y fift h century , an d ha s exerte d enormou s influenc e o n th e developmen t o f Chines e Buddhis t thought . Especiall y wort h mentionin g i n thi s connectio n i s it s teachin g o f Buddha-nature . I t i s well-know n tha t th e ide a o f

Buddha-nature

, on e o f th e centra l concept s i n Chines e Bud dhism , wa s firs t mad e popula r i n th e countr y b y th e Mahayan a versio n o f th e MNS, whic h remain s th e principa l sourc e o f referenc e a s wel l a s th e fina l authorit y i n al l subsequen t discus sion s o n th e subject . Indeed , i t i s n o exaggeratio n t o asser t tha t withou t a prope r understandin g o f th e Buddha-natur e doc trin e a s appear s i n thi s Mahayan a versio n o f th e MNS, i t woul d b e impossibl e t o gras p th e significanc e o f th e subsequen t evolu tio n o f th e concep t i n th e Chines e Buddhis t tradition . I t i s th e orthodo x belie f tha t th e MNS teache s tha t al l sen tien t being s posses s th e Buddha-nature . Sinc e i n th e MNS "Buddha-nature " refer s t o "th e natur e o f th e Buddha " an d "t o possess " th e Buddha-natur e i n th e cas e o f sentien t being s usu all y indicate s "t o hav e i n th e future," 1 thi s belie f amount s t o th e convictio n tha t th e MNS maintain s tha t al l sentien t being s wil l achiev e Buddhahoo d someday . Thi s convictio n i s wel l atteste d 5 7

58 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

b y th e tex t o f th e MNS. Thus , w e fin d i t clearl y expresse d i n th e MNS tha t "al l thre e vehicle s wil l eventuall y shar e th e sam e Bud dha-nature" : Goo d sons ! Th e sam e i s tru e o f th e sravakas , pratyeka

-buddhas and bodhisattvas, fall of whom will attainj the same Buddha-nature, in the like manner as [cows of different colours produce] milk [looking the same]. Why is it so? For all of them will [sooner or later] put an end to defilements. However, there are various sentient beings who maintain that Buddhas, bodhisattvas, sravakas and pratye-kabuddhas are different [with respect to their final destiny]. [Thus,] there are various Sravakas and common people who doubt [the teaching] that the three vehicles are not different. These sentient beings will finally come to understand that all three vehicles [will eventually share] the same Buddha-nature. . . .2

Thos e wh o refus e t o accep t th e tene t tha t al l sentien t being s withou t exceptio n wil l posses s th e Buddha-natur e ar e criticize d b y th e MNS a s wantin g i n faith. H I n th e sutra , thi s ide a o f th e universa l presenc e o f th e Buddha-natur e i s presente d a s on e o f th e distinctiv e theme s o f Mahayan a writings 4 a s wel l a s amon g th e principa l claim s t o excellenc e o f th e MNS itself. 3 I t i s s o highl y esteeme d tha t i t i s describe d a s representin g th e "essen tia l meaning " (tzu-i*) o f th e Buddha' s teaching; 0 and , togethe r wit h th e doctrin e o f th e eterna l natur e o f th e Tathagata , i t i s sai d t o b e definitiv e (chileh-ting h ) an d no t ope n t o futur e amend ments. 7 I f thi s thesi s o f th e eventua l enlightenmen t o f al l sentien t being s doe s indee d constitut e th e centra l them e o f th e MNS, i t i s strongl y qualifie d b y th e presenc e i n th e sutr a o f th e concep t o f th e icchantika. Th e ter m "icchantika" i s derive d fro m th e San skri t roo t is meanin g "t o desire, " "t o wish " an d "t o lon g for. " Thi s explain s th e varian t Chines e rendering s o f th e ter m "ic chantika" a s " a bein g o f man y desires " (to-yu c ), " a bein g cherish in g desires " (lo-yii^) an d " a bein g ful l o f greed " {ta-t'an*)* Bu t i n th e MNS, th e failing s attribute d t o th e icchantikas fa r excee d thos e whic h ar e usuall y associate d wit h peopl e o f suc h descrip tions . I n th e sutra , th e icchantika i s describe d a s "devoi d o f goo d roots" 9 an d a s "th e mos t wicke d being." 1 0 H e i s depicte d a s "havin g n o capacit y fo r th e [true ] Dharma" 1 1 suc h tha t h e ca n

THE PROBLEM OF THF ICCHANTIKA 59

neve r b e rehabilitate d b y th e instructio n o f th e Buddh a an d s o wil l neve r attai n suprem e enlightenment . Take n a t it s fac e val ue , thi s pictur e o f a bein g condemne d foreve r t o spiritua l dark nes s appear s t o contradic t th e propositio n o f th e MNS tha t al l sentien t being s posses s th e Buddha-natur e an d s o ar e destine d fo r Buddhahood , an d commentator s o f th e MNS hav e bee n har d presse d t o fin d a viabl e wa y ou t o f thi s apparen t dilemma . Th e presen t article , whic h i s th e secon d o f a two-par t stud y o n th e proble m o f Buddha-natur e i n th e MNS, V2 i s a n attemp t t o unrave l th e variou s strand s o f though t presen t i n th e MNS regardin g th e characte r an d fat e o f th e icchantikas. I t i s hope d tha t ou r discussion , brie f an d sketch y a s i t is , wil l b e o f hel p i n throwin g ligh t o n thi s highl y intricat e question . // . The Character of An Icchantika Th e portraya l o f icchantikas i n th e MNS amount s t o n o les s tha n a catalogu e o f al l th e majo r vice s i n Buddhism . O f th e man y iniquitie s th e MNS attribute s t o th e icchantikas, thos e fall in g unde r th e followin g thre e categorie s receiv e o n th e whol e th e mos t attention : i. Deficiency in faith and harbouring incorrect views: Th e MNS ofte n describe s th e icchantikas a s "withou t faith: " Goo d sons ! I n Jambudvlpa , ther e ar e tw o type s o f sentien

t beings: first, those who have faith, and secondly, those who are without faith. Those who have faith can be cured. Why? Because they will definitely attain nirvana [which is] free of sores and goitres (i.e., suffering) . . . Those who are without faith are called icchantikas, and icchantikas are known as the incurable ones.1*

O n th e genera l level , b y "withou t faith, " th e MNS mean s th e repudiatio n o f huma n effort s an d th e denia l o f religiou s ideals . Thus , th e MNS give s th e nam e icchantika t o al l men , women , ascetic s an d brahman s wh o maintai n tha t ther e i s n o roa d t o salvation , n o enlightenmen t an d n o nirvana ; an d de nounce s the m a s follower s o f Mar a an d slanderer s o f th e Dharm a an d th e Buddha. 1 4 Th e MNS als o frequentl y charge s th e icchantikas wit h re -

60 J1ABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

jectin g causa l la w an d th e karmi c theory - understandably , sinc e negatin g th e lin k betwee n caus e an d effec t tend s t o weak e n ou r sens e o f mora l responsibilit y an d put s i n doub t th e effectivenes s o f huma n action s i n chartin g th e cours e o f th e future. 1 5 O n th e mor e specifi c level , b y "withou t faith, " th e MNS mean s th e refutatio n o f th e lesson s o f Buddhism , especiall y th e lesson s o f Mahayan a Buddhism . Thu s i t i s sai d tha t sinc e th e icchantikas hav e n o eye s fo r th e goo d an d th e evil , the y dispar ag e th e broa d an d universa l teaching s o f th e Mahayana. 1 0 De famin g Mahayan a sutras , togethe r wit h committin g th e fou r grievou s trespasse s an d th e fiv e deadl y sins , i s b y fa r th e mos t underscore d characteristi c o f th e icchantikas i n th e MNS. 17 Fur thermore , sinc e amon g th e numerou s tenet s o f Mahayan a Bud dhism , th e MNS regard s th e universa l presenc e o f th e Buddha - natur e an d th e eterna l natur e o f th e Tathagat a a s th e mos t central , i t i s natura l tha t ignoranc e o f thes e tw o truth s i s single d ou t a s a prim e featur e o f th e icchantikas: Th e Buddh a teache s sentien t being s [tha t al l o f them ] pos

sess the Buddha-nature. [But] those icchantikas, transmigrating in [the realm of] samsara, cannot comprehend [this truth]. Thus, we say that they are blind to the work of the Tathagata. Again, the icchantikas, seeing that that Tathagata attains the supreme nirvana, take him to be really impermanent [in nature], in the same manner as when [the flame of] a lamp goes out, its oil also is exhausted at the same time. Why [do they maintain such a perverted view]? It is because their evil karma never wears out.1H

I t i s als o asserte d i n th e MNS tha t thos e wh o believ e tha t al l sentien t being s hav e th e Buddha-natur e shoul d neve r b e calle d icchantikas. 19 ii. Immoral conduct and breaking monastic precepts: I n th e MNS, icchantikas ar e repeatedl y sai d t o b e guilt y o f th e fou r grievou s trespasse s o f sexua l immorality , stealing , kill in g an d fals e speaking , an d th e fiv e deadl y sin s o f patricide , matricide , murderin g a n arhat , sheddin g th e bloo d o f a Bud dha , an d instigatin g schis m i n th e sarigha : Th e icchantikas commi t th e fou r grievou s trespasses , an d ar e guilt y o f th e fiv e deadl y sins . Suc h peopl e als o ca n no t b e describe d a s tranqui l i n bod y an d mind. 2 0

THE PROBLEM OE THE 1CCHANTIKA 61

Beside

s thes e abominabl e transgressions , th e MNS als o include s i n th e lis t o f infirmitie s o f th e icchantika^ th e failing s o f bein g miserly , gluttonou s an d unfilial : Thi s perso n (th e icchantika) originall y worshippe d th

e threejewels and various devas, but has changed since then, and now worships his own desires [instead]. He loved to give alms in the past but has now become miserly. He was by nature moderate in his diet, but has now turned gluttonous. He had an ingrained aversion for evils, but now looks on them with sympathy. He was born filial and esteemed his parents, but now he has no thought of respect for his father and mother.21

Th e specificatio n o f th e icchantika her e a s someon e wh o "origin all y worshippe d th e thre e jewel s an d variou s devas " i s signifi cant , fo r i t suggest s tha t th e icchantika wa s onc e a faithfu l fol lowe r o f th e Buddhis t way , bu t ha s sinc e the n turne d hi s bac k o n th e Truth . Thi s ide a i s als o implie d i n wha t i s perhap s th e mos t exhaustiv e enumeratio n o f th e icchantikas vice s i n th e MNS: Goo d sons ! Fo r si x reasons , th e icchantika an d hi s kin d ar e boun d t o th e thre e evi l way s an d canno t b e se t free. 2 2 Wha t ar e thes e six

? i. Because they are intense in their evil thoughts. ii. Because they do not believe in after-life. iii. Because they enjoy practising defiled [deeds]. iv. Because they are far removed from good roots. v. Because they are obstructed by evil karma.

vi . Becaus e the y see k th e compan y o f ba d friends . Again , fo r fiv e [kind s o f mis-]conduct , the y ar e boun d t o the three evil ways. What are these five? i. Because they misbehave in relation to monks. ii . Becaus e the y misbehav e i n relatio n t o nuns . iii . Becaus e the y misappropriat e th e > propertie s o f th e saiigha

. iv. Because they misbehave in relation to womankind, v. Because they instigate disputes among the five groups

i n th e sarigha. 2 3 Again , fo r fiv e [kind s o f mis-]conduct , the y ar e boun d t

o the three evil ways. What are these five? i. Because they often declare that there are neither good

no r ba d fruits , ii. Because they kill sentient beings in whom the thought of enlightenment has arisen.

62 jlABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

hi . Becaus e the y lik e t o tal k abou t th e shortcoming s o f thei r teachers

, iv. Because they call the true untrue, and the untrue true, v. Because they listen to and receive the Dharma only to

fin d faul t wit h it

. Again, for three [kinds of mis-]conducts, they are bound to the three evil ways: i. They maintain that the Tathagata is impermanent and is annihilated forever [at death], ii. They maintain that the true Dharma is impermanent

an d mutable

, iii. They maintain that the saiigha, [the third of the three] jewels, can be destroyed. As a consequence, they are forever bound to the three evil ways.24

Whil e "t o enjo y practisin g defile d deeds, " "t o see k th e compan y o f ba d friends, " etc. , ar e misdeed s quit e commo n amon g th e averag e ru n o f mankind , "t o misbehav e i n relatio n t o monks, " "t o misbehav e i n relatio n t o nuns, " "t o misappropriat e th e propertie s o f th e sarigha " an d "t o instigat e dispute s amon g th e fiv e group s i n th e sarigha " ar e misdeed s pertainin g largel y t o member s o f th e monasti c community . Thus , i t appear s tha t th e icchantikas ar e no t jus t ordinar y sinner s wh o happe n t o violat e th e way s o f thinkin g an d rule s o f conduc t o f th e Buddhis t religion . Rather , the y ar e renegad e Buddhists , wh o purposel y disclai m al l th e principle s t o whic h the y hav e formerl y swor n allegiance ; an d th e extrem e severit y o f th e assault s agains t th e icchantikas i n th e MNS testifie s indirectl y t o th e intens e interna l conflic t an d spiritua l crisi s th e Buddhis t saiigh a wa s confront in g a t tha t time. 2 5 iii. Pride and absence of the sense of shame: Fo r al l th e aforementione d iniquities , th e icchantikas shoul d b e liabl e t o subsequen t rehabilitation , i f no t fo r anothe r featur e o f their s whic h th e MNS ofte n call s t o ou r attention , i.e. , thei r insurmountabl e pride , whic h quashe s al l feeling s o f guil t an d s o block s ever y avenu e t o penitence . Thus , i t i s declare d i n th e MNS tha t th e icchantikas, "du e t o thei r arroganc e an d pride , d o no t hav e an y fea r despit e th e man y evil s the y hav e done ; an d fo r thi s reason , wil l no t attai n nirvana." 2< i Prid e put s ou t an y sens e o f shame :

THE PROBLEM OF THE ICCHANTIKA 63

Wh o ar e th e sinner s [wh o cove r u p thei r misdeeds] ? The

y are the icchantikas. The icchantikas are those who do not believe in [the law of*] cause and effect, and are deprived of the sense of shame. They are sceptical of [the function of] karma and do not recognize [any connection between] the present and the future. They stay away from virtuous friends, and do not follow the instruction of the Buddhas. Such people are known as the icchantikas*7

Tha t th e icchantikas' terribl e fat e ha s mor e t o d o wit h thei r stubbor n sens e o f self-sufficienc y tha n wit h an y concret e ac t o f transgressio n i s vividl y demonstrate d i n th e followin g passage , whic h append s t o eac h pronouncemen t o f th e icchantikas' mis dee d th e qualificatio n o f thei r neve r entertainin g an y though t o f repentenc e o r sham e fo r them : Cunda ! Suppos e ther e ar e monks , nuns , mal e household

ers and female householders who speak evil and slander the true Dharma, and never repent or feel ashamed despite such serious misdeeds. [It should be understood] that such people are known as "heading for the path of the icchantikas." [Cunda!] Suppose there are people who are guilty of the four grievous trespasses and the five deadly sins. Even though they know that they will definitely commit such serious crimes, they do not have any thought of fear and shame beforehand, and refuse to confess [afterwards]. [Furthermore,] they never have the intention to preserve and to establish the true Dharma, but rather defame and despise it; and err repeatedly in their words. [It should be unaerstood] that sucn people are also known as "heading for the path of the icchantikas."2*

III. Can An lechantika Attain Buddhahood? Whil e th e depictio n o f th e characte r o f th e icchantikas re main s reasonabl y consisten t throughou t th e MNS, speculatio n o n thei r futur e destin y i s not . Hitherto , w e hav e spoke n a s i f th e MNS i s committe d t o th e vie w tha t th e wa y o f enlightenmen t i s foreve r close d t o th e icchantikas. However , mor e carefu l read in g o f th e sutr a show s tha t it s standpoin t o n th e subjec t i s fa r fro m bein g s o clear-cut . Indeed , differen t part s o f th e sutr a see m t o contai n divers e opinion s o n th e subject , whic h strongl y suggest s tha t th e MNS i s no t th e produc t o f a singl e author , bu t

64 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

comprise s severa l strat a o f materia l comin g i'ro m variou s hands . I n th e res t o f thi s article , w e shal l tr y t o sor t ou t thes e differen t layer s o f material , a s wel l a s expoun d thei r position s regardin g th e fat e o f th e icchantikas. i. The View of the First Part (Chapters 1 - 5) Th e MNS, a s i t ha s com e dow n t o u s i n th e Chines e transla tio n o f Dharmak§em a (385-433) , consist s o f thirtee n chapters . I t ha s lon g bee n suspecte d tha t th e firs t five chapter s o f thi s translatio n ar e actuall y a n independen t work , fo r no t onl y d o the y posses s mos t o f th e feature s o f a separat e sutra, 29
bu t ther e als o wer e passe d dow n t o u s tw o othe r translation s o f thi s part , on e i n Chines e b y th e famou s pilgri m Fa-hsien * (complete d i n 418
) an d th e othe r i n Tibeta n b y Jinamitra , Jnanagarbh a an d

Devacandra

. Thi s conjectur e appear s al l th e mor e plausibl e whe n w e conside r th e questio n o f whethe r th e doo r o f enlight enmen t i s ope n t o th e icchantikas, fo r th e repl y suggeste d b y thi s par t o f th e MNS contrast s sharpl y wit h tha t o f th e res t o f th e book , an d i t i s a definit e no . Thus , th e icchantika i s describe d i n thes e chapter s a s on e wh o "neve r work s fo r th e goo d dhar - mas." 3 0 H e i s furthe r sai d t o b e s o devoi d o f th e root s o f virtu e tha t no t a singl e though t o f goodnes s wil l eve r aris e i n him : Wha t i s a n icchantika} A n icchantika i s on e whos e root s o

f goodness have been completely eradicated. His original mind is so devoid of any desire for good dharmas that not a single thought of goodness will ever arise in him.*'

I f th e MNS ofte n declare s th e Buddha-natur e t o b e th e proper t y o f al l sentien t beings , th e icchantikas ar e clearl y mean t t o b e th e exceptions , fo r th e followin g citatio n openl y announce s tha t th e icchantikas ar e devoi d o f th e Buddha-natur e an d s o ca n neve r realiz e Buddhahood : Again , [suppose ] ther e i s a mon k wh o preache s th e mos

t profound scriptures which are the secret treasury of the Buddha[, and asserts]: "All sentient beings possess the Buddha-nature. Due to this nature, they can cut off innumerable billions of bonds of defilements, and attain the most perfect enlightenment. The only exceptions are the icchantikas."

THK PROBLEM OF THE 1CCHANT1KA

Suppos

e a kin g an d hi s ministers , [o n hearin g th e word s o f th e monk] , sa y a s follows : "Monk ! Wil l yo u becom e th e Buddh a o r not ? D o yo u hav e th e Buddha-nature? " Th e mon k replies , " I definitel y hav e th e Buddha-natur e i n m y bod y a t present . A s t o whethe r I shal l realiz e i t o r not , i t i s no t fo r m e t o judge. " [Then ] th e kin g says , "Mos t virtuou s one ! [ I guess ] if you do not become an icchantika, you will for certain realize [Buddha- hood]." Th e mon k answers , "You r Majest y ha s spoke n correctly. " [I t shoul d b e understoo d that ] eve n thoug h tha t perso n (th e monk ) hold s tha t h e definitel y ha s th e Buddha-nature , h e i s no t guilt y o f th e unpardonabl e si n [o f exaggeratin g hi s spiritua l attainment]. ^ Give n th e abov e description s o f th e icchantikas, i t i s hardl y sur prisin g tha t thi s par t o f th e MNS woul d conclud e b y exludin g the m fro m th e real m o f th e mos t perfec t enlightenmen t for ever : Again , I (th e Buddha ) manifes t i n Jambudvlp a a s a n

icchantika, and all people [seeing me] consider me to be an icchantika. But I am actually not an icchantika. [For] how can an icchantika ever attain the most perfect enlightenment?"

I n stressin g th e resistanc e o f th e icchantikas t o al l kind s o f beneficia l influences , especiall y th e beneficia l influence s o f th e MNS, thi s firs t par t use s a larg e numbe r o f similes . S o th e icchantikas ar e compare d t o th e deaf , who m th e soun d o f Dharm a ca n neve r penetrate : Again , goo d sons ! Jus t a s th e dea f ar e obliviou s t o al l sounds , th e sam e i s tru e o f th e icchantikas, wh o canno t hea r eve n i f the y wan t t o hearke n t o thi s wonderfu l scriptur e (th e MNS)™ A paralle l i s draw n betwee n th e icchantika an d diamon d imper viou s t o exterio r permeation : ()() JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1 Again , goo d sons ! Jus t a s heav y rai n neve r stay s i n midair

, the same is true of this wonderful scripture which is the MNS, which lets fall on all places its rain of Dharma, which, however, does not abide in the case of the icchantikas. [For] the icchantikas are compact through and through like a diamond, and cannot withhold anything from outside.*5

Perhap

s th e mos t ofte n use d simil e i n th e MNS wit h respec t t o th e icchantika i s th e scorche d see d whic h ca n neve r sen d fort h sprout : Again , goo d sons ! I t i s jus t a s scorche d seed s wil l neve

r send forth sprouts even if nourished by timely rain for hundreds and thousands of kalpas. If [we see] sprouts coming out, it can never be from such sources. The same is true of the icchantikas. Even if they hearken to the wonderful scripture which is the MNS, there will never arise in them the slightest sign of the thought of enlightenment. If [the thought of enlightenment] arises, it can never be in such beings. Why? For these people have completely cut off their good roots; and, like scorched seeds, they will never send forth the sprout of enlightenment.™

Anothe

r favorit e simil e fo r th e icchantikas i n th e MNS i s th e fatall y sick , t o who m n o medicine , howeve r efficacious , i s o f an y avail : Again , goo d sons ! I t i s jus t a s ther e i s a medica l her

b known as the King of Medicine, which is the most excellent among drugs. . . . Good sons! The same is true of this won-derfulscripture which is the MNS, which can put an end to the bad karma of all sentient beings, [including that resulting from] the four deadly sins, the five grievous trespasses and all evils inner or outer. With [the MNS] as cause, people who have never entertained the thought of enlightenment will develop the thought of enlightenment. Why? Because this wonderful scripture is the king of sutras, just as that medical herb is the king of drugs. No matter whether one is striving for the supreme nirvana or not, if, on hearing the name of this sutra, one reveres and has faith in it, all his defilements and serious ailments will come to an end. However, [this sutra] cannot establish [on the way of] the most perfect enlightenment the icchantiktis; in the same way as that wonderful medicine can cure all sorts of serious diseases, but cannot heal those who are bound to die."

THE PROBLEM OE THE 1CCHANT1KA 67

Th e epithe t "houn d t o die " i s applie d t o th e icchantikas agai n an d agai n i n th e MNS. Thus , a le w paragraph s later , w e com e acros s th e followin g remarks : Again , goo d sons ! I t i s jus t a s ther e i s a skilfu l docto r wel

l versed in the eight branches of medical fart], and can cure all diseases except the fatal ones. . . . Good sons! Again there is a skilful doctor whose [skill even] surpasses the eight branches of [medical] art, and can relieve the pains of sentient beings, except that he cannot cure diseases which are fatal. The same is true of the Mahayana scripture which is the MNS. It can wipe away all the defilements of sentient beings and establish them in the pure and wonderful cause of the Tathagata, and it can [also] make the thought of enlightenment arise in people who have never entertained the thought of enlightenment. The only exceptions are the icchanlikas, beings who are bound to die.'**'

Al l i n all , th e accoun t o f th e ice/iantiha i n th e firs t fiv e chapter s o f th e MNS amount s t o on e of " th e mos t authoritativ e state ment s o f eterna l damnatio n i n Buddhism . V 1 /'/' . The View of (he Second Part {Chapters 6 - 9 )

Chapter

s b- ( J o f th e MNS ar e somewha t a n enigma . The y ar e evidentl y mean t t o b e a continuatio n o f th e firs t part , fo r th e firs t par t conclude s wit h Sakyanum i proclaimin g himsel f t o b e sick , whil e thi s secon d par t open s wit h th e Bodhisattv a Ka - syap a chidin g Sakyamun i fo r assumin g th e appearanc e o f be in g ill , thu s misleadin g sentien t being s int o believin g tha t th e

Tathagat

a i s transien t i n nature . Furthermore , thes e chapter s continu e som e o f th e mai n theme s o f th e firs t part , th e mos t obviou s o f whic h i s th e thesi s o f th e eternal , blissful , persona l an d pur e natur e o f nirvana . However , s o fa r a s structur e i s concerned , thi s par t show s mos t o f th e feature s o f a separat e work . Fo r example , i t begin s wit h a shor t prelud e consistin g o f a n appea l t o teac h fro m th e assembl y an d a displa y o f supernat ura l powe r b y th e Buddha , a s i s typica l o f Mahayan a surras . It s mai n bod y i s devote d t o th e expositio n o f th e liv e categorie s o f deed s obligator y o n al l bodhisattva s (i.e. , saintl y deeds , pur e deeds , deva-deeds , bab y [-like J deed s an d ailmen t deeds) , an d i s complet e i n itself. l o I t als o end s i n a typicall y Mahayan a fashion , wit h a predictio n o f th e futur e fulfilmen t o f th e pre -

68 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

cedin g instruction s b y th e Buddh a an d a promis e t o practis e b y th e Bodhisattv a Kasyapa . Tha t thi s sectio n o f th e MNS i s compile d independentl y seem s al l th e mor e plausibl e whe n w e conside r th e biograph y o f Dharmaksem a i n th e Kao-srng chuan K , wher e i t i s mentione d tha t th e MNS a s translate d b y Dharmak sem a wa s importe d int o Chin a i n thre e part s a t thre e differen t times , thu s confirmin g ou r suspicio n tha t th e MNS a s foun d toda y i s actuall y a conglomeratio n o f materia l comin g fro m variou s hands. " Al l considered , i t seem s mos t likel y tha t thi s portio n o f th e MNS wa s writte n b y someon e wh o ha d intimat e knowledg e o f th e "firs t part, " an d wishe d t o clarif y som e o f it s mai n idea s an d modif y som e o f it s les s acceptabl e features . On e o f th e mos t significan t modification s introduce d b y thi s par t i s concerne d wit h th e proble m o f th e icchatitika. Thes e chapter s continu e t o attac k th e icchantika i n uncom promisin g term s reminiscen t o f th e earl y chapters . Fo r exam ple , th e icchantika i s labelle d a s on e "wit h th e mos t inferio r roots, " fo r who m th e Buddh a woul d neve r tur n th e Whee l o f th e Law. 4 2 H e i s describe d a s boun d t o suffering , s o muc h s o tha t eve n th e compassio n o f th e bodhisattva s i s o f n o avai l t o him. 1 3 I f th e miraculou s powe r o f th e Buddh a ca n mak e th e blin d see , th e dea f hea r an d th e faithles s faithful , i t ca n exercis e n o chang e whateve r i n th e icchantika™ I n thi s section , th e ic chantika i s compare d t o a corpse , whic h n o docto r ca n restor e t o life. 1 5 I t i s eve n affirme d tha t n o sinfu l karm a wil l b e procure d i f on e kill s a n icchantika: Jus t a s n o sinfu l karm a [wil l b e engendered ] whe n on e dig

s the ground, mows grass, fells trees, cuts corpses into pieces and scolds and whips them, the same is true when one kills an icchantika, for which deed [also] no sinful karma [will arise].ifi

I f th e secon d par t share s th e vie w o f th e firs t par t o n th e presen t conditio n o f utte r degradatio n o f th e icchantikas, i t i s no t s o wit h regar d t o th e questio n o f thei r eventua l enlighten ment . A s w e hav e seen , th e repl y o f th e firs t par t o f th e MNS t o thi s questio n i s purel y negative . I n th e secon d part , however , sentence s an d passage s begi n t o emerg e whic h sugges t a mor e optimisti c view . Thus , w e fin d th e followin g statement s i n con nectio n wit h th e grea t compassio n o f th e bodhisattvas :

THE PROBLEM OF THE 1CCHANT1KA m

Goo d sons ! Th e mos t wicke d one s ar e kno w a s

icchantikas. When bodhisattvas [who have reached] the first [of the ten] abodes practise the great compassion,17 they do not harbour any thought of discrimination, [even] with respect to the icchantikas. Since they do not perceive the faults of the icchantikas, they are not beset by anger. For this reason, they are called [beings of] great compassion. Good sons! Bodhisattvas are known as [beings of] great compassion because they strive to remove the non-beneficial [elements] in sentient fjeings.,H

I f th e abov e quotatio n onl y intimate s indirectl y tha t icchantikas ar e susceptibl e t o goo d influences , b y speakin g o f bodhisattva s "strivin g t o remov e th e non-beneficia l element s i n sentien t be ings " (thu s includin g th e icchantikas), th e followin g passag e o n th e fatherl y affectio n o f th e bodhisattva s put s th e matte r fa r mor e explicitly : Goo d sons ! Jus t a s whe n a well-belove d so n i s goin g t o die

, his parents would be [greatly] saddened, and would willingly risk their life [to save his], the same is true of the bodnisattvas, who, on seeing that the icchantikas are heading for hell, would resolve to be born in hell with them. Wny? [Because they reflect,] "When these icchantikas are being tortured [in hell], there may arise in them a moment of thought of repentence. [If we are with them,] we will presently preach various dharmas to them, so that there may arise in them a moment of good roots."41'

Th e ide a tha t th e though t o f repentenc e ma y nevertheles s aris e i n th e icchantikas notwithstandin g al l thei r seriou s fault s finds clea r expressio n i n th e followin g discussio n o f th e tw o type s o f icchantikas, i.e. , thos e wh o hav e goo d root s a t present , an d thos e wh o wil l hav e goo d root s i n th e future , a discussio n whic h flatl y contradict s previou s assertion s tha t th e icchantikas hav e cu t of f al l thei r goo d root s an d wil l foreve r remai n i n samsara :

Icchantikas

ca n b e classifie d int o tw o types : first, thos e wh

o have good roots at present, and secondly, those who will have good roots in the future. The Tathagata preaches the Dharma to those icchantikas whom he knows perfectly well to possess good roots at present. He likewise also preaches the Dharma to those [icchantikas] who will possess good

70 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

root s i n th e future . Fo r eve n thoug h [wha t i s sai d a t pres

ent] is of no benefit to them [for the time being], it can serve as the cause [of the arising of good roots m them] some later day. With this in mind, the Tathagata preaches the essence of the Dharma for the sake of the icchantikas. Again, there are two types of icchantikas, those with superior roots, and those with average roots. While those with superior roots shall obtain good roots in their present life, those with medium roots will obtain good roots in their future lives.50

Whil e th e parabl e o f th e ma n stuc k i n a cesspoo l i s use d b y th e author s o f th e agamas t o stres s th e extrem e degre e o f spiritua l degradatio n o f Devadatta , th e arch-fien d i n earl y Buddhism,'* 1 i t i s borrowe d b y th e compile r of thi s par t o f th e MNS fo r th e ver y differen t purpos e o f illustratin g th e potentia l fo r futur e refor m o f th e icchantikas: Th e Buddhas , th e world-honoure d ones , neve r preac h th

e Dharma without definite purpose. . . It is as if a clean man has fallen into a cesspool; and his virtuous friends, seeing him [in such state], would have pity on him, and woula immediately come forward, catch his hair and pull him out. The same is true of the Buddhas, the Tathagatas. Seeing that sentient beings have fallen into the three evil ways,52 they employ various means to rescue them and liberate them [from their predicament]. Thus, the Tathagata preaches the Dharma for the sake of the icchantikas.™

Hi. The View of the Third Part (Chapters 10-13) I f ou r conjectur e o n th e proces s o f formatio n o f th e firs t tw o part s o f th e MNS i s correct , chapter s 10-1 3 wer e th e las t portio n o f th e sutr a t o appear , an d the y wer e compile d a s a continuatio n o f th e precedin g sections . On e clea r indicatio n i s th e treatmen t o f th e icchantikas. Thi s sectio n i s s o emphati c o n th e capacit y fo r futur e enlightenmen t o f th e icchantikas, an d differ s i n thi s respec t s o markedl y fro m th e hars h condemna tio n o f th e icchantikas i n th e firs t par t an d th e ambivalen t treat men t o f th e icchantikas i n th e secon d part , tha t i t seem s quit e unlikel y tha t th e thre e ca n b e o f th e sam e origin . Thus , thi s par t speak s i n unmistakabl e term s o f th e possessio n o f th e Buddha - natur e b y th e icchantikas:

THE PROBLEM OF THE ICCHANT1KA 71

Goo d sons ! Al l sentien t being s wil l definitel y attai n th e mos t perfec t enlightenment . Wit h thi s i n mincl , I proclai m i n [various ] sutra s tha t al l sentien t beings , dow n t o th e transgressor s o f th e fiv e deadl y sin s an d th e fou r grievou s trespasse s an d th e icchantikas, posses s th e Buddha-na ture. 5 4 I t list s thi s ide a o f th e possessio n o f th e Buddha-natur e b y th e icchantikas amon g th e item s whic h a tru e followe r o f th e Bud dhis t religio n shoul d hav e fait h in : Wha t i s perfec t faith ? [I t comprises ] believin g whole-heart edl y tha t th e Buddha , th e Dharm a an d th e Sarigh a ar e eternal , tha t th e Buddha s o f th e te n direction s ar e th e skilfu l manifestation s [o f th e on e immutabl e Tathagata] , an d tha t al l sentien t beings , including the icchantikas, posses s th e Buddha-natur e . . . 5 5 I t furthe r place s thi s ide a amon g th e centra l tenet s o f th e MNS, th e rejectio n o f whic h wil l resul t i n submersio n i n th e strea m o f birt h an d death : B y peopl e submerge d [i n th e strea m o f birt h an d death]

, we refer to those who hear the MNS teaching that: [1.] The Tathagata is immortal and immutable. [2.] [The Tathagata] is eternal, blissful, personal and pure,

an d wil l neve r ente r th e fina l nirvana

. [3.] All sentient beings possess the Buddha-nature. [4.] [Even] the icchantikas, who slander the broad and universal [teaching of Mahayana] sutras and commit the Five deadly sins and the four grievous trespasses, will definitely attain the way of enlightenment. [5.] [Even] Hlnayana sages, [including] the stream-winners, the once-returners, the non-returners, the arhats and the pratyekabuddhas, will definitely realize the most perfect enlightenment.5'' On hearing these words, they do not believe, but promptly entertain [perverted] thoughts. Having entertained sucn thoughts, tney speak as follows: "This text on the nirvana [of tne Tathagata] is the writing of non-Buddhists. It is not a Buddhist sutra!"

[From ] tha t tim e [on] , thes e peopl e sta y awa y fro m vir

tuous friends and do not listen to true Dharmas. Even if they happen to listen, they do not deliberate on them. Even

72 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

i f the y deliberat e o n them , the y d o no t deliberat e correctly . Sinc e the y d o no t deliberat e correctly , the y wil l abid e [lon g i n th e real m of ] evi l dharmas. 5 7 I n plai n departur e fro m th e firs t part , whic h assign s th e icchan tikas t o everlastin g doom , th e las t par t affirm s tha t th e wa y t o nirvan a wil l b e ope n t o th e icchantikas onc e the y giv e u p thei r "origina l evi l mind" : Goo d sons ! Nirvan a ca n als o b e describe d a s "definite,

" and it can also be described as the "fruit." Why do we describe nirvana as "definite"? We describe it as "definite" because the nirvana of all Buddhas [have the definite characteristics of] being eternal, blissful, personal and pure. We describe it as "definite" because it [definitely] does not have [the features of] birth, old age and disintegration. We dis-cribe it as "definite" because it will definitely be attained by icchantikas - who transgress the four grievous trespasses, slander the broad and universal [teaching of Mahayana sutras] and commit the five deadly sins - once they give up their original [evil] mind.58

Th e sam e them e reappear s a littl e later , i n a discussio n o n th e superio r knowledg e o f th e bodhisattva s wh o follo w th e teach in g o f th e MNS, i n whic h i t i s state d tha t "th e icchantikas wil l definitel y attai n th e mos t perfec t enlightenment" : Wha t d o [th e bodhisattvas ] know ? The y kno w tha t ther e i

s no self and no qualities pertaining to the self. They know that all sentient oeings possess the Buddha-nature. [They know that] owing to the Buddha-nature [which they possess], the icchantikas will definitely attain the most perfect enlightenment once they give up their original [evil] mind. These are the truths which the sravakas and the pratyekabuddhas can never comprehend, but can be comprehended by the bodhisattvas.59

I f th e abov e expositio n demonstrate s tha t thi s thir d par t i s basicall y a t varianc e wit h th e first tw o part s o f th e MNS o n th e questio n o f th e eventua l deliveranc e o f th e icchantikas, th e thre e part s ar e nevertheles s mean t t o b e rea d a s a singl e text ; an d s o th e mai n tas k facin g th e autho r o f thi s final par t i s no t t o refut e th e contention s o f th e precedin g parts , but , rather , t o find a wa y t o bridg e th e latter' s antagonisti c attitud e toward s th e ic-

THE PROBLEM OF THE 1CCHANTIKA 73

chantikas an d it s ow n mor e sympatheti c stand , s o tha t it s vie w ca n b e considere d a s a developmen t o f rathe r tha n a criticis m o f th e opinion s o f th e rest . Thus , i n deferenc e t o th e previou s sections , thi s par t continue s t o refe r t o th e icchantikas a s "being s devoi d o f goo d roots" : Th e icchantikas ar e calle d [beings ] devoi d o f goo d roots . Sinc e the y ar e devoi d o f goo d roots , the y submerg e i n th e rive r o f birt h an d deat h an d canno t ge t out . Wh y i s i t so ? I t i s becaus e thei r evi l karm a i s heavy . I t i s becaus e the y ar e withou t th e powe r o f faith. 0 0 I t stil l depict s th e icchantikas a s stubbor n i n thei r evi l ways, 6 1 a s s o deepl y sun k i n th e strea m o f defilement s tha t no t eve n th e

Tathagat

a ca n rescu e them. 6 2 I t eve n assert s tha t i t i s bette r t o kil l a n icchantika tha n t o kil l a n ant : [Th e Bodhisattv a KaSyap a asked, ] "World-honoure d one ! Wh y ar e icchantikas withou t goo d dharmas? ' [Th e Buddh a replied, ] "Goo d son ! I t i s becaus e th e icchan tikas hav e cu t of f thei r goo d roots . I t i s becaus e sentien t being s al l hav e th e fiv e root s [o f virtue ] suc h a s faith , bu t th e icchantikas hav e destroye d the m forever. 6 3 Fo r thes e reasons , [i t i s maintaine d that ] on e commit s th e si n o f mur de r o n killin g a n ant , bu t on e commit s n o si n o f murde r o n killin g a n icchantika. 64
Whil e concedin g tha t al l thes e stringen t censure s agains t th e icchantikas ar e true , thes e fina l chapter s se t abou t t o sho w tha t thes e fact s ca n b y n o mean s exclud e th e icchantikas fro m th e ran k o f th e Buddhas-to-be . Bu t ho w ca n being s totall y devoi d o f goo d root s attai n

Buddhahood

? T o resolv e th e problem , th e autho r o f th e thir d par t resort s primaril y t o tw o tactics : i. By presenting the extreme degradation of the icchantikas as a temporary condition, which can be removed with proper religious prac tice: Thus , i t i s argue d tha t whe n th e Buddh a describe s th e icchantikas a s "incurable, " h e ha s i n vie w thei r immediat e fat e o f bein g boun d fo r hell , no t thei r everlastin g damnation :

74 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

Goo d sons ! I t i s jus t a s [when ] a perso n sink s i n a cesspoo

l until only the tip of a single hair remains visible, even though there is still the tip of one hair left undrowned, it cannot be compared with the whole body [in size], the same is true of the icchantikas. Even though they will come to have good roots in the future, [their faculty of virtue is so weak at present that] it can not deliver them from the tortures of nell [to which they are destined]. Even though they will be redeemed in the future, nothing can be done about them now. Thus, we describe them as 'incurable ones."05

Th e sam e i s tru e whe n th e Buddh a compare s th e icchantikas t o "barre n fields, " "broke n utensils " an d "th e fatall y sick. " Thes e parallel s ar e draw n b y th e Buddh a wit h th e vie w tha t th e icchan tikas ar e "withou t virtuou s friends " an d "canno t b e o f an y bene fi t t o others " for the time being, bu t th e Tathagat a wil l continu e t o plan t th e see d o f virtu e i n the m wit h thei r eventua l deliveranc e i n mind. 6 0 So , strictl y speaking , n o sentien t bein g i s endowe d wit h fixe d natur e eithe r goo d o r bad , an d th e icchantikas, i f give n th e righ t opportunities , wil l recove r som e da y th e goo d root s whic h the y hav e onc e lost : Thus , i t shoul d b e understoo d tha t sentien t being s ar e no t definit e i n nature . Sinc e sentien t being s ar e no t definit e [i n nature] , i t ma y happe n tha t thos e wh o hav e cu t of f thei r goo d root s wil l recove r the m agai n [som e day] . I f sentien t being s ar e definit e i n nature , i t wil l neve r occu r tha t [goo d roots] , onc e cu t off , ca n b e revive d onc e more . Also , [i f sentien t being s ar e definit e i n nature , th e Buddha ] woul d no t maintai n tha t icchantikas having fallen into hell will live therefor one kalpa only. 67
Thus , b y restrictin g th e relevanc e o f th e accusation s agains t th e icchantikas t o th e present , th e autho r o f thes e las t chapter s find s i t possibl e t o giv e assen t t o mos t o f th e hars h judgement s agains t th e icchantikas containe d i n th e firs t tw o parts , whil e a t th e sam e tim e affirmin g tha t th e icchantikas wil l soone r o r late r fulfi l th e Buddha-natur e an d reac h th e final enlightenment : Th e icchantikas ar e withou t an y elemen t o f goodness

, whereas the Buddha-nature is [tne supreme] good. [Nevertheless,] since ["to have" may be taken to mean] "to have in the future," [we can maintain that] the icchantikas [, who

THE PROBLEM OF THE ICCHANTIKA 75

ar e withou t an y elemen t o f goodnes s a t present, ] al l posses s th e Buddha-nature . Why ? Becaus e th e icchantikas wil l defi nitel y [all ] attai n th e mos t perfec t enlightenmen t [i n th e future]. 6 8 " . By appealing to the non-dual character of the Buddha-na ture, which transcends all essential distinctions: I n it s characterizatio n o f th e Buddha-nature , th e MNS re peatedl y equate s i t wit h th e middl e wa y an d th e suprem e for m o f emptiness , wit h th e intentio n o f demonstratin g tha t i t i s abov e al l thought s o f distinctions. 65
' O n th e groun d tha t th e

Buddha-natur

e transcend s al l basi c differences , th e sutr a claim s tha t i t canno t b e cu t off : Sinc e th e Buddha-natur e i s neithe r past , present , no r fu ture , i t canno t b e cu t off. 7 " I t onl y make s sens e t o spea k o f "cuttin g of f somethin g i f th e thin g severe d i s tangibl e an d possesse s definit e characteristics . Sinc e th e excellenc e o f th e Buddha-natur e rest s precisel y o n it s bein g non-tangibl e an d non-dual , th e phras e "cuttin g of f can no t b e applie d t o it : Yo u as k ho w [on e ca n sa y that ] th e icchantikas hav e cu t of f thei r goo d roots , i f th e Buddha-natur e [canjno t b e cu t off . Goo d son ! Ther e ar e tw o type s o f goo d roots , first, th e internal , an d secondly , th e external . Sinc e th e Buddha - natur e i s neithe r interna l no r external , i t [canjno t b e cu t off . Again , ther e ar e tw o type s o f goo d roots , first , th e defiled , an d secondly , th e non-defiled . Sinc e th e Buddha - natur e i s neithe r defile d no r non-defiled , i t [can]no t b e cu t off . Again , ther e ar e tw o type s [o f goo d roots] , first, per manent , an d secondly , impermanent . Sinc e th e Budaha - natur e i s neithe r permanen t no r impermanent , i t [canjno t b e cu t off. 7 1 Thus , eve n thoug h th e icchantikas ar e deprive d o f goo d roots , the y ar e no t separate d fro m th e Buddha-nature , an d ca n stil l realiz e Buddhahoo d som e day . O n th e sam e basi s tha t th e Bud dha-natur e i s abov e al l discriminations , th e sutr a furthe r assert s tha t i t doe s no t exclud e fro m it s providenc e an y sentien t being , includin g th e icchantikas:

7(5 J1ABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

Goo d sons ! Jus t a s th e seve n group s o f sentien t being

s dwelling in the Ganges do not live apart from water, even though they assume [different] names such as fish and turtle, the same is true of [the seven groups of sentient beings] from the icchantikas up to the Buddhas [existing] under [the providence of] the wonderful mahdnirvdna, all of whom also do not live apart from the water [of deliverance which is the] Buddha-nature, even though they take on diverse names.72 Good sons! These seven groups of sentient beings are the Buddha-nature, whether they practise the good Dharma, the bad Dharma, the way of expedience, the way of deliverance, the way of gradual fulfilment, [deeds pertaining to the stage of] cause, or [deeds pertaining to tne stage of] fruit.73

Thi s paralle l betwee n th e icchantikas an d th e sentien t being s livin g i n th e Gange s seem s t o impl y tha t despit e al l thei r imper fections , th e icchantikas ar e neve r debarre d fro m th e life-givin g powe r o f th e Tathagata . Th e abov e tw o maneuver s o f th e autho r o f th e thir d par t t o reconcil e hi s belie f i n th e eventua l enlightenmen t o f al l sen tien t being s wit h th e earlie r parts ' ide a o f th e eterna l damnatio n o f th e icchantikas ar e no t beyon d criticism . Fo r example , agains t (i) , w e ma y as k i f on e ca n withou t contradictio n conceiv e th e degradatio n o f th e icchantikas a s temporary , i f on e accept s th e initia l definitio n o f th e icchantika a s someon e wh o "neve r work s fo r th e good " an d wh o "neve r harbour s th e though t o f enlight enment. " Agains t (ii) , w e ma y objec t tha t eve n i f i t i s grante d tha t i t i s no t meaningfu l t o spea k o f "cuttin g of f an d "no t having " th e Buddha-natur e whe n th e Buddha-natur e i s no t a n entit y wit h determinat e features , thi s argumen t remain s vali d onl y o n th e leve l o f expression ; fo r th e mer e fac t tha t ther e i s n o wor d i n ou r vocabular y whic h ca n truthfull y expres s th e everlastin g failur e o f th e icchantikas t o assum e th e natur e o f th e Buddh a woul d no t mak e thei r failur e les s a failure . Further more , whil e i t i s tru e tha t viewe d fro m th e perspectiv e o f th e

Buddha

, nothing , no t eve n th e icchantikas, fall s outsid e hi s non discriminatin g essence , thi s fac t alon e woul d no t guarante e tha t al l sentien t being s ar e capabl e o f actively assumin g th e natur e o f th e Tathagata , jus t a s th e fac t tha t a fathe r cherishe s al l hi s childre n equall y doe s no t b y itsel f entai l tha t al l hi s childre n wil l respon d t o hi s love . Bu t i f th e pose d solution s outline d abov e

THE PROBLEM OF THE ICCHANTIKA 77

ar e theoreticall y dubious , the y nevertheles s confe r a surfac e unit y t o th e thre e portion s o f th e MNS. A s a consequence , fo r centuries , th e sutr a wa s regarde d i n Chin a a s a unifie d work , an d th e ide a o f th e possessio n o f th e Buddha-natur e b y al l sentien t being s wa s commonl y accepte d b y Chines e Buddhist s a s amon g th e cardina l these s o f th e MNS. * I woul d lik e t o than k th e Universit y o f Hon g Kon g fo r a researc h gran t whic h ha s mad e thi s stud y possible . A n earl y versio n o f thi s pape r wa s presente d a t th e Fift h Conferenc e o f th e Internationa l Associatio n o f Buddhis t Studie s (Oxford , 1982)
. Th e compilatio n o f thi s articl e i s greatl y facilitate d b y th e excellen t wor k don e b y previou s scholar s o n th e subject , amon g whic h I woul d lik e t o mentio n i n particula r Tokiw a Daijo's' 1

Bussho

no kenkyvt (Tokyo : 1944
) an d Mizutan i Kosho's ' "Ichisen - da i ko," k Bukkyo daigaku kenkyu kiyo ] 4 0 (1961) , pp . 63-107
. NOTE S 1 . Refe r t o th e analyse s o f th e concept s "Buddha-nature " an d "havin g

Buddha-nature

" i n m y articl e "Th e Doctrin e o f th e Buddha-natur e i n th e

Mahayan

a Mahdpurinirvdna-sutra," Th e Journal of the International Association of

Buddhist

Studies 5. 2 (1982) , pp . 63-94
. 2 . Takakus u Junjiro m & Watanab e Kaikyoku,"eds. , Taisho shinshu daizo- kyfi' (hencefort h abbreviate d t o T), vol . 12 , p . 422c,1.28-p
. 423a
, 1.3 . 3 . Ibid., p . 575b
, 11.25-26 . 4 . Ibid., p . 405a-b
. 5 . Ibid., p . 487b-c
. 6 . Ibid., p . 573c
, 11.19-2 0 & p . 574b
, 11.28-29 . 7 . Ibid., p . 522c
, 11.23-24 . 8 . Se e Mizutan i Kosho , op.cit., pp . 66-6
9 an d Ogaw a lchizo p Bussho shisf (Kyoto : 1982)
, pp . 123-131
. 9 . T, vol.12 , p . 554b
, 1.18 . 10 . Ibid., p . 454a
, 11.5-6 . 11 . Ibid., p . 419b,1.16
. 12 . Se e n. l above . 13 . Ibid., p . 391c
, 11.22-26 . 14 . Ibid., p . 466b,
l 1.12-15 . 15 . See ibid., p . 562a
, 11.10-12 , p . 562c
, 11.18-1 9 & p . 569c-570a
. 16 . Ibid., P . 419a
, 11.5-6 . 17 . Fo r example , se e ibid., p . 487c
, 11.23-24 , p . 505a,
l 1.21-22 , p . 546b
, 11.17-1 8 & p . 559b
, 11.9-10 . ,.•••;' ' ,".'> ? -

78 JIABS VOL. 7 NO. 1

18 . Ibid., p . 418c
, 11.23-27 . 19 . Ibid., p . 519c,11.12-13
. 20 . Ibid., p . 527a
, 11.4-5 . 21
. Ibid., p . 482a
, 11.15-19 . 22
. Th e thre e evil way s ar e rebirth s a s animals , hungr y ghost s an d be ing s i n hell . 23
. Th e fiv e group s i n th e sangh a ar e monks , nuns , nun-candidate s (siksamdnd), male-novice s an d female-novices . 24
. T, vol . 12 , p . 554b
, 1.20-c , 1.5 . 25
. Consul t Mizutan i Kosho , "Bukky o n i oker u kik i iyak u n o ich i kosat - su', " Indogaku bukkyogaku kenkyu' 8. 2 (I960) , pp . 600-609
. 26
. Ibid., p . 418c
, 11.17-18 . 27
. Ibid., p . 477c
, 11.26-29 . 28
. Ibid., p . 425b
, 11.3-9 . 29
. Suc h a s concludin g wit h a n injunctio n t o preac h th e sutra . 30
. T , vol.12 , p . 420a
, 11.25-26 . 31
. Ibid., p . 393b
, 11.14-16 . 32
. Ibid., p . 404c
, 11.4-11 . 33
. Ibid., p . 389b
, 11.15-17 . 34
. Ibid., p . 420b,
l 1.11-13 . 35
. Ibid., p . 418b
, 11.21-24 . 36
. Ibid., p . 418a
. I 1.4-9 . Als o se c p . 4 18b, l 1.18-2 1 & p . 125c
. 1.2 2 - p . 426a
. 1. 1 37
. Ibid., p . 418a,1.18-b
, 1.4 . 38
. Ibid., p . 419b
, 11.17-25 . 39
. I n Dharmaksema' s translatio n of " thi s firs t part , o n whic h ou r presen t discussio n i s based , ther e ar e severa l passage s whic h appea r t o bac k awa y fro m thi s extrem e ide a o f everlastin g damnation . Thus , th e icchantikas ar e mentione d o n severa l occasion s a s amon g th e object s o f compassio n o f th e bodhisattva s an d Buddhas : (i ) Whe n bodhisattva s diver t thei r goo d karm a [fo r th e accomplishmen t of ] th e mos t perfec t enlightenmen t [i n all sentien t beings] , the y wil l als o besto w thi s gif t o n th e icc.iianlikas, eve n thoug h [th e latte r repeat edly ] attack , destro y an d vo w disbelie f o f [th e Buddhis t Dharma] . [Why? ] Becaus e the y wan t t o realiz e th e suprem e Trut h wit h them . {Ibid., p . 418c
, 11.27-29 ) (ii ) [Since ] th e Tathagat a look s o n all [l>eings ] a s i f the y ar e [hi s onl y son ]

Rahula

, Ho w ca n h e renounc e compassio n an d ente r nirvan a forever ? Onl y afte r th e icchanlikas hav e attaine d th e Buddhis t wa y i n thei r presen t bodie s An d ar e establishe d i n th e suprem e blis s woul d [th e Tathagata ] en te r nirvana . {Ibid., p . 424b
, 11.21-24 ) Sinc e i t i s generall y agree d tha t Buddha s an d bodhisattva s ar e boun d fo r nirvana , thei r vow s no t t o realiz e thi s stat e unti l al l icchantikas ar e save d see m t o impl y tha t th e latte r ar e no t los t forever . On e paragrap h eve n attribute s th e

Buddha-natur

e t o th e icchantikas, onl y wit h th e qualificatio n tha t i n thei r case ,

THE PROBLEM OF THE ICCHANTIKA 79

"i t i s s o boun d u p wit h innumerabl e impuritie s an d sins " tha t th e effec t o f it s presenc e ca n hardl y b e felt : {iii ) Eve n thoug h tlie icchantikas have the Buddha-tmture, i t i s s o boun d u p wit h innumerabl e evil defilement s tha t i t ca n no t manifes t itself , lik e a silkwor m shu t u p i n a cocoon . Du e t o [thei r evil ] karma , ther e wil l neve r aris e [i n them ] th e wonderfu l principl e o f enlightenment , an d the y wil l transmigrat e perpetuall y [i n th e real m of ] samsara , (Ibid., p . 419b
, 11.5-7 ) Th e cleares t expressio n o f th e redeemabilit y o f th e icchantikas i n thi s par t o f th e MNS i s foun d i n th e followin g descriptio n o f th e futur e o f th e icchantikas a s "indefinite" : (iv ) Wit h th e ter m "indefinite" , [w e tr y t o demonstrat e that ] i t i s no t th e cas e tha t th e icchantikas wil l remai n foreve r unchange d an d thos e guilt y o f th e [five ] grievou s trespasse s wil l neve r fulfi l th e wa y o f th e

Buddha

. Why ? Fo r a t th e tim e thes e peopl e gai n pur e fait h i n th e tru e Dharm a o f th e Buddha , the y wil l forfei t [thei r conditio n of ] bein g icchantikas. I f the y furthe r [accep t th e thre e jewels ] an d be com e mal e householders , the y wil l agai n forfei t [thei r conditio n of ] bein g icchantikas. Whe n peopl e guilt y o f th e [five ] grievou s trespasse s pu t awa y thei r sins , the y wil l attai n Buddhahood . Thus , i t i s no t th e cas e tha t [th e icchantikas] wil l remai n foreve r unchange d an d [thos e guilt y o f th e five grievou s trespasses ] wil l neve r fulfi l th e wa y o f th e

Buddha

. (Ibid, p . 393b
, 11.5-10 )

However

, i f w e tur n t o Fa-hsien' s translatio n o f th e text , w e discove r tha t o f th e fou r excerpt s liste d above , onl y (ii ) remain s i n essentiall y th e sam e form , an d i n plac e o f (i) , (iii ) an d (iv) , w e fin d passage s conveyin g almos t exactl y th e opposit e message . Thus , instea d o f (i) , whic h talk s o f bodhisattva s bestowin g th e gif t o f Dharm a upo n th e icchantikas, w e find denunciatio n o f th e icchanti kas a s "vulgar , ignoran t worldlings, " a s "foreve r cu t of f fro m th e cause s an d merit s of " enlightenment" : Th e icchantikas ar e foreve r cu t of f fro m th e cause s an d merit s o f enlight enment , an d ar e know n a s vulgar , ignoran t worldlings . Thos e wh o main tai n tha t suc h vehicl e [a s th e icchantikas] i s capabl e o f [attaining ] th e final awakenin g an d becomin g th e Buddh a shoul d al

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