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AN INTRODUCTION

T O

ARISTOTLE'

S RHETORIC .

AN INTRODUCTION

T O

ARISTOTLE'

S RHETORIC .

Cambridge: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.

A T TH E UNIVERSIT Y PRESS .

AN INTRODUCTION

T O

ARISTOTLE'

S RHETORI C WIT H ANALYSI S NOTE S AN D APPENDICE S B Y Ε . Μ . COP E SENIO R FELLO W AN D TUTO R O F TRINIT Y COLLEGE , CAMBRIDGE . U n jour , disai t Ibn-Rosch d (Averroes) , Ibn-Tofaï l m e fit appele r e t m e dit : "J'a i entend u aujourd'hu i l'émi r de s croyant s s e plaindr e d e l'obscurit é d'Aristot e e t de se s traducteurs : Plût à Dieu, disai t il , qu'il se rencontrât quelqu'un qui voulût commenter ces livrée et en expliquer clairement le sens, pour les rendre accessibles aux hommes*" Renan , Vi e d'Averroès , p . 17 . Londo n an d Cambridg e

MACMILLA

N AN D CO . 1867
. [Right of Translation reserved.] 881

A8rh.Ye

VIR O EXIMI O

GEORGI

O GROT E

HISTORIC

O PHILOSOPH O PR.ESTANTISSIM O HO C OPUSCULU M

OBSERVANTIA

E E T HONORI S CAUS A

DEDICAVI

T

EDVARDU

S MEREDIT H COP E

PEEFACE.

TH E followin g page s ar e introductor y t o a n editio n o f th e Gree k tex t o f Aristotle' s Rhetoric , whic h ha s bee n lon g i n cours e o f preparation , an d wil l appea r a s soo n a s i t ca n b e go t ready . Th e genera l objec t whic h I hav e ha d i n vie w i n th e present , an d shal l continu e t o pursu e i n th e suc ceeding , volume , canno t b e bette r state d tha n i n th e word s o f th e Emi r o f th e Faithfu l i n th e passag e whic h I hav e selecte d fo r m y mott o ; commente r c e livr e e t e n explique r clairemen t l e sens , pou r l e rendr e accessibl e au x hommes . I n on e word , i t is , a s fa r a s I a m capabl e o f effect in g it , t o rende r Aristotle' s Rhetori c thoroughl y intelligible . I t i s a wor k worth y o f al l study , an d on e o f th e ver y bes t an d completest , an d I ma y add , on e o f th e mos t origina l an d characteristic , o f thi s wonderfu l author' s mos t origina l an d mul tifariou s writings . Explanatio n i n it s mos t com prehensiv e sens e I tak e t o b e th e first an d foremos t dut y o f th e Edito r o f a n ancien t classic , t o whic h V11I al l other s ar e subsidiar y an d subordinate . With ou t seekin g t o underrat e o r depreciat e th e othe r service s tha t ma y b e rendere d toward s th e eluci datio n o f a decease d author , wh o wrot e i n a lan guag e lon g dea d an d forgotte n b y th e worl d a t large , an d survivin g onl y i n th e thought s an d affection s o f th e fe w wh o hav e tim e o r car e t o devot e themselve s t o th e stud y o f it , an d wit h a ful l acknowledgemen t o f wha t w e ow e t o thos e wh o hav e bestowe d thei r specia l attentio n upo n th e critical , emendatory , palseographical , philological , o r grammatical , department s o f scholarship , I stil l can no t bu t thin k tha t th e highes t servic e tha t a schola r ca n rende r t o literatur e an d th e unlearne d i s t o bring , s o a s fa r a s tha t ma y b e possible , th e grea t thought s an d grea t work s o f a bygon e age , th e representation s o f a stat e o f feeling , o f society , an d o f civilization , fa r remove d fro m u s an d no w har d t o realise , withi n th e rang e o f moder n appre hensio n an d sympathy , an d t o mak e the m a t onc e intelligibl e an d acceptable . Thi s kin d o f ligh t ma y b e throw n upo n ancien t institution s an d mode s o f though t bes t i t i s tru e b y a searchin g an d critica l history , bu t i n a lowe r degre e an d withi n nar rowe r limit s b y a good explanator y commentar y upo n an y importan t an d characteristi c work . Th e kin d o f illustratio n o f whic h I a m speakin g wil l o f cours e no t b e confine d t o a mer e verba l o r gram - IX matica l explanatio n o f phras e an d idiom , thoug h tha t shoul d certainl y no t b e excluded . I t shoul d embrac e no t merel y peculiaritie s o f expression cha racteristi c eithe r o f th e autho r himsel f individually , o r o f hi s ag e an d country , bu t als o al l tha t throw s ligh t upo n th e character , opinions , mode s o f thought , o f himsel f an d hi s age , an d particularl y upo n th e association s b y whic h h e wa s surrounded , th e view s an d feeling s prevailin g i n th e societ y wit h whic h h e mixed , whic h giv e thei r colou r t o hi s ow n thoughts , view s an d feelings , an d upo n whic h thes e ofte n mainl y depen d : an d thi s i s mor e especiall y desirabl e i n a commentar y upo n a n ancient author , betwee n who m an d ourselve s th e differenc e i n al l thes e point s i s likel y t o b e ver y wide . I writ e thi s wit h th e fulles t consciousnes s o f th e utte r inadequac y o f m y ow n knowledg e an d abilitie s t o realis e thi s conceptio n o f a n Editor' s dut y ; an d indee d th e deficienc y o f ou r actua l knowledg e o f thing s an d events , person s an d circumstances , mus t ofte n an d i n man y point s interpos e a n insuperabl e obstacl e t o an y suc h realisatio n : stil l i t ma y b e wel l t o kee p i t i n vie w a s a standar d an d a n idea l t o ai m at , howeve r fa r w e ma y fal l shor t i n ou r effort s t o attai n it . Judge d b y th e standar d o f ou r moder n notion s o f it s valu e an d importance , rhetori c migh t see m t o b e a subjec t rathe r belo w th e dignit y o f a philo - χ sophe r an d unworth y o f hi s expres s notic e an d stud y : bu t ther e wer e man y peculia r circumstance s i n th e socia l lif e o f Athen s durin g th e latte r par t o f th e fifth century , an d dow n t o Aristotle' s ow n time , whic h migh t wel l hav e th e effec t o f attractin g universa l attentio n t o thi s art . T o sa y nothin g o f it s natura l an d obviou s valu e a s a mean s o f attainin g distinctio n i n publi c life , i t ha d acquire d a purel y artificia l an d factitiou s importanc e b y th e ingenuit y an d accomplishment s o f it s sophistica l professors , wh o introduce d i t fro m Sicily , an d establishe d i t i n Greec e proper ; an d especiall y a t Athens , wher e i t seem s t o hav e entirel y supersede d fo r a tim e th e earlie r syste m o f education . Durin g Aristotle' s earl y residenc e a t Athens , Isocrate s an d hi s rhetori ca l schoo l wer e a t th e heigh t o f thei r reputation . Th e boundles s assumptio n o f thi s teache r an d hi s loft y pretension s t o 'philosophy ' an d genera l know ledge , contraste d wit h th e actua l realit y o f hi s literar y an d philosophica l performances , a s wel l a s th e rea l influenc e tha t h e ha d acquire d ove r hi s pupil s an d followers , see m t o hav e move d th e in dignatio n o f Aristotl e t o suc h a degre e tha t h e se t u p a riva l rhetorica l schoo l t o counterac t it , an d inaugurat e a bette r system. . Thi s i t wa s tha t gav e hi m hi s firs t practica l impuls e t o cultivat e rhetori c a s a n art ; an d tha t h e retaine d hi s likin g for · th e stud y throug h life , i s show n b y th e amoun t o f atten - XI tio n tha t h e continue d t o besto w upo n it ; fo r h e no t onl y seem s t o hav e occupie d himsel f throug h , a considerabl e par t o f hi s lif e i n collectin g th e mate rial s o f th e wor k tha t remain s t o us , bu t als o o f hi s los t writings , thre e a t leas t appea r t o hav e bee n upo n th e subjec t o f rhetoric . Bu t h e di d fo r rhetori c wha t h e ha s don e fo r s o man y othe r branche s o f know ledg e ; h e imparte d t o i t a n origina l characte r an d a ne w direction , s o tha t i n hi s hand s i t becam e a syste m distinc t an d peculiar , wit h a ne w interes t an d value , whic h I believ e I ma y sa y wit h trut h n o succeedin g treatis e o n th e subjec t ha s eve r equalled . I ma y refe r particularl y i n evidenc e o f thi s nove l characte r t o th e subtl e an d penetratin g observation s upo n lif e characte r an d manner s i n th e first an d secon d book s whic h giv e a lif e an d interes t t o th e wor k suc h a s n o othe r ar t o f rhetori c ca n preten d to . Thi s an d th e logica l elemen t ar e perhap s th e tw o mos t characteristi c feature s o f th e Aristotelia n system . I hav e endeavoure d i n thi s Introductio n t o illustrat e t o th e bes t o f m y power , a s preparator y t o th e detaile d explanatio n o f th e wor k itself , th e genera l bearing s an d relation s o f thi s Ar t o f Rhetori c i n itself , a s wel l a s th e specia l mod e o f treatin g i t adopte d b y Aristotl e i n hi s peculia r syste m ; I hav e collecte d an d examine d th e availabl e evidenc e upo n on e o r tw o doubtfu l an d obscur e question s immedi - XII atel y connecte d wit h th e subject , suc h a s th e dat e o f th e wor k itself , th e Theodectea , an d othe r work s upo n rhetoric , no w unhappil y lost , whic h Aristotl e i s believe d t o hav e composed ; an d hav e entere d ver y fully , a s th e importanc e o f th e subjec t demanded , int o th e relation s whic h rhetori c i s mad e t o bea r i n

Aristotle'

s vie w t o th e kindre d ar t o f logi c i n it s tw o varieties , demonstratio n o r scientifi c metho d an d dialectics . I hav e give n a connecte d analysi s o r outlin e o f th e content s o f th e wor k itself ; i n som e parts , wher e th e obscurit y o f th e tex t o r th e especia l importanc e an d difficult y o f th e immediat e subjec t seeme d t o requir e it , i n th e for m o f a paraphrase ; herei n followin g th e exampl e o f tha t excellen t commentato r Victorius : an d wit h th e vie w o f re lievin g th e commentar y upo n th e tex t o f certai n note s whic h migh t hav e grow n t o a lengt h to o grea t fo r th e spac e tha t coul d b e ther e allotte d t o them , hav e throw n a fe w notice s o f matter s tha t seeme d t o requir e longe r an d mor e detaile d consideratio n int o Appendice s annexe d t o th e first an d thir d books . A s a genera l appendi x t o th e Introduction , an d a s offerin g a marke d contras t t o Aristotle' s Rhetoric , an d th e bes t representativ e o f th e antagonisti c syste m an d metho d o f hi s predecessor s an d th e schoo l o f

Isocrates

, I hav e give n a complet e analysi s o f th e rhetorica l treatis e know n unde r th e nam e o f th e 'Ρητορική προς Άλβξανάρον, a wor k lon g attribute d t o xm

Aristotl

e an d incorporate d wit h hi s writings , bu t no w b y almos t universa l consen t ascribe d t o Anaxi - menes . Thi s latte r questio n I hav e als o examined , an d hav e offere d som e argument s i n favou r of , a t al l events , a suspensio n o f judgmen t upo n a hypo thesi s certainl y no t ye t beyon d th e reac h o f question , o r eve n refutation . I t ha s bee n m y objec t als o t o sho w b y thi s analysi s wha t wa s th e tru e character , an d wha t th e probabl e an d natura l result , o f th e teachin g o f th e system s o f rhetori c o f thi s school , an d th e practic e the y inculcate d ; an d ho w fa r there for e Plat o wa s justifie d i n th e view s tha t h e hel d o f thei r unscientifi c characte r an d demoralizin g in fluence. An d now , commendin g thi s littl e boo k t o th e student s fo r who m chiefl y i t i s intended , an d wit h a heart y desir e tha t i t ma y hel p t o thro w a littl e ligh t upo n a grea t wor k i n ever y wa y worth y o f thei r study , bu t certainl y requirin g muc h elucidation ; a wor k which , partl y n o doub t fro m th e wan t o f suc h aids , ha s bee n hithert o a t leas t i n thi s countr y some wha t undul y neglecte d b y student s an d scholars , a s wel l a s Editors , wh o hav e bee n le d awa y b y th e suppose d superio r attraction s o f th e Ethic s an d

Politic

s int o othe r mor e flowery path s o f Aristotelia n literatur e ; I wil l conclud e thi s brie f notic e o f th e desig n an d content s o f thi s Introduction , an d brin g thes e prefator y remark s t o a close .

TRINIT

Y COLLEGE , May 31si
; 1867
.

ADDENDA.

p . 33
, lin e 2 4 o n th e sentenc e endin g "...ma y b e obtained " ad d (not e 1). Se e o n th e sam e subject , an d t o th e sam e eifect , Bacon , d e Augm . iv . 1. (Vo L 1 . p . 588
. Elli s an d Spedding . Ed. ) o r Advancemen t o f Learning , Bk . 11 . (in . 371)
. ñ , ßá7 . Ad d t o example s o f στοιχέϊον i n th e sens e o f τάπος, Rhet . a d Alex . c . 3 6 (37 ) 9 . στοιχεί α κοινά κατά πάντων.

ERRATA

. p . 94
. eras e not e 1 . p . 239
. fo r CH . VI . rea d OH . xiv .

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAG E

Aristotle'

s predecessor s i n th e ar t o f Rhetori c . . 1 appeal s t o th e feeling s ..... . 4 characteristic s o f Aristotle' s Rhetori c . . . . 6 material s o f rhetori c ..... . 8 rhetori c a n ar t o r a facult y Ί . . . . 1 4 Art , an d it s definition s . . . . . .1 9 variou s view s an d definition s o f rhetori c .. . 2 7 dat e o f Aristotle' s Rhetori c ..... . 3 6

Aristotle'

s los t work s o n rhetoric , συναγωγή τεχρώρ, Τρνλλος,

θεοδέκτεια

..... . 4 9 demonstratio n o r science , dialectics , rhetoric , i n thei r mutua l relation s ...... . 6 7 syllogism , enthymeme , exampl e ... . 9 9

ήθος,

i n rhetori c . . . . . . .10 8

πάθος,

πάθη, i n rhetori c . . . . . . 11 3 th e thre e branche s o f rhetori c . . . . .11 8

τόποι,

έΐάη, στοιχεία . . .. . . . 12 4

Analysi

s o f Aristotle' s Rhetori c Bk , i . an d Appendice s . 134 - 24
4 paraphras e o f Bk . I . ch . 1 . . . . . . 13 4 paraphras e o f Bk . i . ch . 2 . . . . . . 14 9

εικός,

ση μείον, Τ€κμήριορ . . . . . , 160
paraphras e o f Bk . 1 . ch . 3 . . . . . . 168
analysi s o f cc . 4 - 1 3 . . . . . . 17 2

επιείκεια,

equit y . . . . . . .19 0 analysi s o f CC . 14 , 15 . th e ατεχνοι πίστεις . . . 19 3

Appendice

s t o Bk.i . ..... . 20 8

Append

. A . t o Bk . 1 . ch . 8 . o n th e classification s o f πόλιτεΐαι i n

Aristotle

, Plato , an d Polybiu s ... . 20 8 App . B . Bk . I . C 9 . επαιρος, εγκώμιορ, μακαρισμός, ευδαιμονισμός. . 21
2 App . C . Bk . 1 . c . 10 . th e seve n motive s o r source s o f actio n . 21
8 App . D . Bk . 1 . c . 11 . o n pleasur e an d it s definition s . . 23
4 App . Ε . Bk . I . C . 14 . άγραφοι, γεγραμμενοι ρόμοι . , 23
9

Analysi

s o f Aristotle' s Rhetoric , Bk . n . . . ' 245 - 27
6 XVI PAG E

Χύσις,

έλεγχος, ενστασις . . . . . . 264 - 27
6

Analysi

s an d paraphras e o f Aristotle' s Rhetoric , Bk . in . an d

Appendice

s ..... . 277 - 40
0

Genera

l observation s o n styl e . . . . . 27
9

ψυχρά,

διπλ ά ονόματα, γλώτται, επίθετα ... . 28
6 purity , perspicuity , o f styl e .... . 29
3 propriet y . . . . . . . . 29
7 rhyth m i n pros e ...... . 30
3 th e period , εϊρομενη an d κατεστραμμένη λεξις . . . 30
6 poin t an d vivacit y o f style , τα αστεία, &c . . . . 31
6

Witticism

s ....... . 31
9 Styl e i n th e thre e branche s o f rhetoric , th e writte n style , th e styl e o f debate , declamatory , &c . . . . 32
3

τάξις,

th e division s o f th e speec h . . . . .33 1

προοίμιον

... . ... . 33
7 topic s o f th e same , διαβολή ..... . 34
4

διή'γησις

........ . 34
8

πίστεις

....... . 35
5

ερώτησις,

interrogatio n ..... . 36
2

επίλογος,

ανακεφαΧαίωσις . . . . . .36 6

Append

. A . Bk . in . c . 2 . ονόματα καϊ ρήματα, earl y grammatica l classification s . . . . . . 37
1 App . B . Bk . ðé . c . 2 . Metapho r .... . 37
4 App . C . Bk . III . αρμονία, ρυθμός, μετρον, μέλος, μέγεθος (της φω

νής)

: an d especiall y o n rhythm , i n referenc e t o in . 8 . . 37
9

ρυθμός,

μετρον, βάσις, αρσις, θέσις .... . 38
7 App . D . Bk . III . C . 5 . σύνδεσμος ... . 39
2 App . E . Bk . III . CC . 15 , 16 , 17 . αμφισβητήσεις, στάσεις, status , constitutione s causaru m .... . 39
7 'Ρητορική προς Άλέξανδρον.

Contraste

d wit h Aristotle' s Rhetoric , (an d throughout ) . 40
1 authorshi p ....... . 40
5 evidenc e o f styl e ..... . 40
8 analysi s o f content s . . . . . . .41 5 mora l characte r o f th e wor k .... . 45
7

INTRODUCTION

τ ο

ARISTOTLE'

S RHETORIC .

ARISTOTLE'

S PREDECESSORS . TH E origi n an d growt h o f th e ar t o f Rhetori c hav e bee n trace d fro m th e earlies t times , b y Spenge l i n hi s Artiu m

Scriptores

, a wor k execute d upo n th e mode l of , an d intende d t o replace , Aristotle' s los t treatis e Συναγωγή τεχνών, a collec tio n o f th e precedin g ' Arts' 1 ; ver y briefl y b y Westerman n i n hi s Geschicht e de r Griech . u . Rom . Beredtsanskrit . Th e sam e subjec t ha s bee n treate d b y mysel f i n a serie s o f paper s publishe d i n th e Journa l o f Classica l an d Sacre d Philology , Nos . .5 , 7 an d 9 2 ; an d I nee d no t her e repea t wha t I hav e alread y sai d elsewhere .

Rhetoric

, a s a n art - a s a facult y o r practic e i t i s a s ol d a s huma n languag e an d intellect - wa s bor n i n Sicily , wher e it s earlies t professors Cora x an d Tisia s practise d an d taugh t an d quibble d : bu t i t wa s soo n transplante d b y Gorgia s an d th e wanderin g Sophist s int o Attica , wher e i t gre w an d flourished i n a congenia l atmospher e an d soil . I n a stat e i n whic h publi c speakin g wa s a n indispensabl e accomplishmen t 1 Th e treatise s o n th e ar t o f rhetori c 2 I hop e a t som e futur e tim e t o re - wer e s o calle d pa r excellence , t o mar k publis h thes e paper s i n a correcte d an d th e superiorit y o f thi s ove r al l othe r enlarge d form , whic h ma y serv e a s arts . Isocr . κ. τ . Σοφ. § 19 . al καλού- a furthe r introductio n t o th e presen t

μεναι

τέχναι. work . 1 2 fo r a statesma n o r politicia n ; an d a t Athen s t o b e a poli ticia n wa s th e rul e rathe r tha n th e exception ; an d i n a n unusuall y litigiou s society. , wher e ever y citize n wa s oblige d t o plea d hi s ow n caus e i n th e la w court , th e valu e o f suc h a powerfu l instrumen t o f self-defenc e an d persona l aggrandise men t wa s o f cours e a t onc e recognised 1 , an d th e stud y becam e s o popula r tha t i t completel y supplanted , a s th e con servative s o f Athen s complained , th e old-fashione d trainin g b y γυμναστική an d μουσική, an d supplie d a n educatio n t o th e youn g me n wh o wer e preparin g fo r publi c life . Th e extan t notice s o f th e teachin g o f it s professor s an d o f th e practice s whic h the y inculcated , a s wel l a s th e content s o f on e remainin g specime n o f thei r writings , whic h I shal l notic e mor e particularl y b y an d by 2 , th e substitutio n o f plau sibl e an d sophistica l reasonin g fo r soun d logi c an d scientifi c inquiry , th e cultivatio n o f quicknes s an d dexterit y an d addres s a t th e expens e o f veracit y an d honest y an d sincerity , thei r ai m bein g 'persuasion ' a t an y cost , t o mak e th e wors e appea r th e bette r cause * t o pas s of f falsehoo d fo r trut h upo n th e hearer s b y a juggl e o f plausibl e arguments - al l thi s woul d surel y see m full y t o justif y th e disapprobatio n an d 1 "Whe n th e onl y wa y o f address - i n Thucydide s π . 60
. Pericle s ha d in g th e publi c wa s b y orations , an d jus t bee n layin g clai m t o a n equa l whe n al l politica l measure s wer e de- capacit y o f judgin g wha t wa s righ t bate d i n popula r assemblies , th e cha - an d expressin g i t i n words , an d adds , racter s o f Orator , Author , an d Politi - 6 re yàp yνού$ καΐ μη σαφω$ dtbaj-as eu cia n almos t entirel y coincide d ; h e wh o ΐσφ καϊ el μ ή ένεθυμήθη. woul d communicat e hi s idea s t o th e 2 I n orde r no t t o brea k mor e tha n world , o r woul d gai n politica l power , i s necessar y th e threa d o f m y story , an d carr y hi s legislativ e scheme s int o I wil l reserv e th e evidence s o f th e im - effect , wa s necessaril y a Speake r ; mora l tendenc y o f th e Sophistico-Rhe - sinc e a s Pericle s i s mad e t o remar k b y torica l teachin g derivabl e fro m thei r

Thucydides

, 'on e wh o form s a judg - ow n writing s fo r a n Appendix : whic h men t o n an y point , bu t canno t explai n wil l includ e a n outlin e o f th e content s himsel f clearl y t o th e people , migh t a s o f th e Rhetoric a a d Alexandrum , no w wel l hav e neve r though t a t al l upo n generall y attribute d t o Anaximenes , a t th e subject." * Whately , Rhetoric , al l event s th e onl y extan t Τέχνη o f

Introduction

. Th e ' remar k ' whic h thi s Sophistica l school .

Whatel

y ha s thu s expanded, , occur s 3 dislik e o f Plat o an d Aristotle , o r indee d o f an y hones t ma n an d patrioti c citizen , fo r thi s ne w syste m o f education , with ou t havin g recours e t o th e suppositio n o f an y unworth y pre judic e entertaine d agains t the m a s rival s o r charlatans , o r a n irresistibl e inclinatio n t o satir e finding a convenien t objec t i n thi s particula r class . Tha t thes e charge s ar e no t unfounde d wil l appear , I think , fro m al l th e notice s tha t remai n t o u s o f th e system s an d practic e o f thi s Sophistica l Schoo l o f Rhetoricians ; an d som e acquaintanc e wit h th e natur e o f thei r 'Arts / th e subject s the y dwel t o n an d th e precept s the y delivere d an d th e mode s o f arguin g tha t the y recommende d wil l b e o f al l th e mor e importance , a s i t will illustrat e b y wa y o f contrast , th e novelty , th e systemati c completeness , th e acut e an d varie d observatio n o f me n an d thing s whic h distinguishe s Aristotle' s ' Ar t o f Rhetoric ' fro m al l other s precedin g an d succeeding .

Aristotl

e himsel f i n severa l passage s o f hi s work 1 give s u s som e accoun t o f th e mod e i n whic h Rhetori c wa s treate d b y hi s predecessor s i n thei r system . H e say s tha t the y ha d confine d themselve s almos t exclusivel y t o on e branc h o f th e subjec t th e judicia l namel y o r forensic , neglectin g th e highe r an d noble r departmen t o f deliberative , public , o r Parlia mentar y speakin g (th e *¥ητορική προς ΆΧέξανδρον, th e onl y extan t treatis e belongin g t o th e Sophistica l School , i s fre e a t leas t fro m thi s defect) ; an d tha t eve n i n thi s the y lef t un · 1 Rhet . ι . ι . 3 , 4 , 9 , 10 , 11 . I . 2 . 5 . fo r them . This , h e says , the y calle d

Compar

e ðé . 13 . Se e als o som e re - education . Bu t i n realit y i t wa s no t mark s o n th e growt h an d progres s o f th e art o f rhetori c tha t the y taugh t

Rhetori

c i n de Soph . El . c . 34
, 183
. b . them , bu t th e product s o f th e ar t : an d 25
. e t seq . H e ther e refers , 183
. b . 38
, a ma n migh t jus t a s wel l profes s t o t o th e practic e commo n amongs t th e communicat e a n ar t fo r protectin g th e rhetorica l teacher s o f givin g thei r fee t fro m injury , an d then , instea d o f pupil s loc i communes , selec t extract s teachin g th e ar t o f shoemaking , o r o f speeches , t o lear n b y heart , a s th e providin g th e pupi l wit h an y mean s o f dialectician s provide d their s wit h th e makin g suc h thing s himself , presen t mos t familia r an d usefu l 'topics ' o f hi m wit h a grea t variet y o f ready-mad e argument ; implyin g apparentl y tha t shoes , som e o f thes e teacher s di d littl e els e 1 - 2 4 notice d th e mos t importan t an d th e onl y scientifi c par t o f th e subject , th e theor y o f proof , an d confine d themselve s t o suggestin g variou s art s an d device s fo r workin g upo n th e emotion s an d affection s o f th e audience , o r describin g th e du e arrangemen t o f th e content s an d division s o f th e speech , an d suc h lik e comparativel y triflin g an d insignifican t mat ters , whic h ar e eithe r positivel y vicious , o r a t an y rat e unscientifi c an d 'besid e th e (real ) question' , βξω τον πράγ

ματος,

extr a artem - outsid e th e limit s o f a genuin e ' Ar t o f

Rhetoric'

; o f whic h th e prope r objec t i s proof , an d tha t alone , (in . 1 . 5. ) An d al l thi s i s full y confirme d b y Plat o i n th e Phasdrus , cc . 50
, 51
, 5 6 seq . an d elsewhere .

APPEAL

S T O TH E FEELINGS . I t ma y b e a s wel l her e b y th e way , thoug h I shal l hav e t o retur n t o i t hereafter , t o notic e an d explai n a n apparen t contradictio n betwee n Aristotle' s theor y an d practic e i n con nexio n wit h thi s subjec t o f th e defect s o f hi s predecessor s : fo r i t i s quit e certai n tha t h e does himsel f dwel l i n grea t detai l upo n th e variou s mode s o f producin g certai n impres sion s o n th e mind s o f th e audience , an d excitin g i n the m certai n feelings , a s o f sympathy , compassion , indignation , resentment , kin d feeling , an d others , an d tha t thi s occupie s a considerabl e spac e i n hi s wor k an d i s treate d a s a matte r o f grea t importance . Th e necessit y o f i t i s show n principall y i n th e treatmen t o f ήθος, an d πάθος ; tha t is , i n th e mod e o f conveyin g a favourabl e impressio n t o th e audienc e o f you r ow n characte r an d intentions , an d i n inspirin g th e listener s wit h suc h feeling s an d sentiment s a s ar e desirabl e fo r yoursel f an d you r ow n case , an d advers e t o th e opponent . No w thi s ma y b e don e i n tw o way s : scientifically , throug h th e mediu m o f th e speec h itself , whic h i s indee d on e o f th e mode s o f proof - o f whic h ther e ar e three , πίστβις, ήθος, an d πάθος - and therefor e form s par t o f th e ar t o f rhetori c i n it s strictes t 5 sens e ; an d unscientifically , b y th e introductio n o f considera tion s a b extr a o r besid e th e rea l point , argument s a d homine m an d a d captandum , suc h a s direct appeal s t o th e feelings , impassione d an d exaggerate d languag e (Ββίνωσίς), o r even , a s wa s ofte n done , th e actua l productio n o f th e wido w an d orphan s o r friend s o f a decease d perso n t o excit e compassio n an d blin d th e judge s t o th e rea l merit s o f th e case . Thi s wa s indee d th e constan t practic e i n th e Athenia n la w court s an d publi c assemblies , an d notoriousl y i n th e tria l o f th e eigh t general s afte r th e battl e o f Arginusae 1 . Howeve r ther e i s alway s mor e roo m fo r th e employmen t o f art s o f thi s kin d i n forensi c tha n i n publi c speakin g (i . 1 . 10 ) : i n th e latte r the y ar e les s serviceable , an d therefor e les s used ; an d conse quentl y thi s branc h o f Khetori c i s noble r an d pure r tha n th e other , appeal s t o highe r an d mor e generou s motives , an d i s mor e disintereste d an d libera l : i n th e practic e o f th e Court s o f la w o n th e othe r han d ther e i s mor e scop e fo r tricker y an d chicaner y (κακουρηία), whic h indee d explain s th e preferenc e o f th e Sophistica l Rhetorician s fo r th e forensi c branc h o f th e Art . Bu t beside s thi s scientifi c us e o f them , ther e i s anothe r reaso n fo r no t excludin g appeal s t o th e feeling s fro m th e practic e o f rhetoric ; the y ar e justifie d t o a certai n extent , lik e th e attentio n whic h mus t necessaril y b e pai d t o th e com positio n an d language , harmon y an d rhythm , o f th e speec h (ill . 1 . 5) , Sea τψ μοχθηρίαν των ακροατών: th e deprave d judgmen t an d tast e o f a n ordinar y audienc e requires thi s kin d o f f flattery,' a s Plat o call s it , an d th e speake r i s there for e obliged t o giv e way ; t o rela x th e rigorou s observanc e o f th e rule s o f hi s art , an d t o humou r thei r perverte d inclina - 1 Na m e t M' . Aquiliu m defenden s Inst . Orat , n . xv . 7 . I n § 8 , th e cas e

Antonius

, quu m sciss â vest e cicatrices , o f Serviu s Galb a i s quoted , an d i n qua s i s pr o patri a pector e advers o § 9 , th e famou s cas e o f Phryn e an d suscepisset , ostendit , no n orationi s th e orato r Hyperides . Th e stor y o f habui t fiduciam, se d oculi s popul i E-o - Hyperide s an d Phryn e i s tol d b y man i vi m attuli t : quer n ill o ips o Athenaeus , xni . 590
. E . Se e also , Ly - aspect u maxim e motu m i n hoc , u t ab - curg . c . Leocr . § § 11 - 13 . solvere t reum , creditu m est . Quint . 6 tions . T o som e exten t therefor e th e stud y an d analysi s o f huma n motive s passion s an d feeling s belon g t o rhetoric , an d ar e indee d a n essentia l par t o f it ; an d th e rule s derive d fro m i t ma y b e applie d through the speech t o excit e certai n emotion s i n th e audience : thi s ma y howeve r b e carrie d a grea t dea l to o far : an d th e faul t tha t Aristotl e finds wit h th e Art s o f precedin g Rhetorician s o n thi s poin t i s tha t the y confine d themselve s t o thi s indirec t mod e o f provin g thei r case , an d neglecte d th e mor e regula r an d scientifi c mod e o f proo f b y logica l enthymeme . (i . 2 . 5. )

CHARACTERISTIC

S O F ARISTOTLE' S RHETORIC . Fro m thi s explanator y digressio n w e no w retur n t o th e consideratio n o f Aristotle' s ow n Rhetoric , an d th e point s o f differenc e betwee n hi s mod e o f treatmen t o f th e subjec t an d tha t o f hi s predecessors . Tha t whic h give s it s peculia r an d distinctiv e characte r t o hi s treatmen t o f Rhetori c is , a s h e himsel f tell s us , tha t h e ha s establishe d it s connexio n wit h

Dialectics

, th e popula r branc h o f Logic , o f whic h i t i s a 'branch * o r 'offshoot ' o r ' counterpart' o r 'copy / whic h enable s hi m t o giv e a systematic an d scientifi c expositio n o f i t a s a specia l kin d o f reasonin g an d mod e o f proo f : thi s ha d bee n totall y overlooke d b y th e precedin g writer s upo n rhetoric , wh o a s w e hav e see n ha d confine d themselve s almos t exclu sivel y t o matter s outsid e o f th e Art , whic h d o no t properl y belon g t o it . Subordinat e t o thi s however , an d include d i n it , i s anothe r specia l characteristi c whic h distinguishe s hi s wor k fro m thos e tha t precede d an d followe d it , thoug h h e doe s no t himsel f particularl y notic e it , th e analysi s namel y o f huma n character , motives , an d feeling s whic h give s i t a grea t par t o f it s valu e an d interest . Th e adoptio n o f thi s nove l mod e o f treatin g th e subjec t wa s i n al l probabilit y du e t o th e suggestion s o f Plat o i n th e Phsedrus , 27
1 c - 27 2 B , 27
3 D , E , wher e i t i s pointe d out , tha t a s ther e i s a grea t 7 variet y o f 'souls / i.e . mind s an d character s o r dispositions , an d a lik e variet y o f speeches , th e latter , i n orde r t o produc e th e intende d effec t o f ' persuasion / mus t b e dul y adapte d t o th e correspondin g varietie s o f th e former , an d tha t fo r thi s purpos e th e stud y o f huma n nature , character s an d motives , i s requisite 1 . Bu t Plato , wh o wa s alway s mor e read y t o projec t tha n carr y ou t a scheme , content s himsel f wit h offer in g th e suggestion : th e executio n o f th e pla n wa s lef t t o th e grea t analys t an d observe r o f Natur e an d huma n life ; a tas k whic h h e ha s fulfille d wit h hi s accustome d skil l an d sagacity . H e i s i n fac t th e first, an d w e ma y ad d th e last , wh o ha s treate d Rhetori c comprehensivel y an d systematically , i n con nexio n an d contras t wit h thos e branche s o f philosoph y wit h whic h i t stand s i n immediat e relation . Wit h thi s genera l theor y o f rhetorica l proof an d it s subor - 1 Thi s i s all , I believe , tha t ca n fairl y b e inferre d fro m Plato' s lan guag e i n th e Phaedrus ; i n proo f o f whic h I merel y refe r t o th e passage s quoted , whic h spea k fo r themselves .

Spenge

l however , i n a pape r o n Ari stotle' s Rhetori c publishe d i n th e

Transaction

s o f th e Bavaria n Aca dem y p . 28
, comp . 8 - 11 , think s tha t Plat o intende d t o mar k th e three fol d divisio n o f rhetorica l πίστας, int o

πίστεις

proper , ήθος an d πάθος, whic h

Aristotl

e afterward s adopte d fro m hi m an d developed . I confes s tha t I ca n se e n o trac e o f an y suc h intentio n i n th e passage s i n question . Th e distinc tio n o f ήθος an d πάθη a t an y rate , a s

Aristotl

e understand s it , i s certainl y no t mad e out . Wha t Plat o says amount s t o n o mor e tha n I hav e ex presse d i n th e text . Bu t i n fac t Plat o acknowledge s n o art o f rhetori c a t all , an d therefor e woul d no t hav e trouble d himsel f abou t it s divisions : an d h e expressl y denie s tha t Rhetoric , i f a tru e art , ca n b e confine d t o mer e pro babilities , ô á εικότα, a s it s material s :

Ιίτυμος

τέχνη άνευ του αληθείας ηφθαι

οϋτ'

2στιν οϋτε μή ποθ' ύστερον 'γένηται: wherea s probabilit y i s th e ver y basi s an d groundwor k o f Aristotle' s system .

Plato'

s objec t i n thi s par t o f th e Phae dru s i s t o sho w tha t Rhetoric , i f ther e b e reall y suc h a n art -

περ

ί πάντα τα \ε~γ6μενα μία τις τέχνη, εϊπερ ϊστιν - mus t coincid e wit h philosophy : tha t th e tru e rhetoricia n mus t b e als o a dialecticia n (i n hi s own , no t Aristotle's , sens e o f th e word) , a complet e philo sopher , on e wh o ha s a comprehensiv e an d exac t knowledg e o f al l th e rela tion s o f things . S o fa r a s h e differ s fro m th e philosophe r h e i s a quac k an d a n impostor ; s o fa r a s h e coincide s wit h him , hi s art i s superseded . An d essentiall y th e sam e vie w o f th e ar t i s take n i n th e Gorgia s : a genuin e τέχνη aim s a t truth ; on e whic h confine s itsel f t o mer e probabilities , i s n o ar t a t all , bu t a sha m an d a n imposture . 8 dinat e divisions , an d th e exemplificatio n o f it s severa l €ΪΒη an d τόποι, two-third s o f th e entir e wor k ar e occupied ; i t i s no t unti l th e en d o f th e secon d boo k an d th e commencemen t o f th e thir d tha t th e content s o f th e latte r o f these , Χέξις an d τάξις, styl e an d arrangement , includin g th e division s o f th e speec h an d thei r appropriat e topics - th e ordinar y subject s o f th e precedin g ( Art s ' - ar e eve n named . Upo n thi s cir cumstance , i t ma y b e mentione d i n passing , ha s bee n founde d a n argumen t agains t th e genuinenes s o f thi s thir d book . I onl y mentio n i t fo r th e purpos e o f expressin g m y stron g con victio n o f th e utte r groundlessnes s o f an y suc h suspicion . I f th e thir d boo k o f th e Ar t o f Ehetori c di d no t procee d fro m th e pe n o f Aristotle , al l evidenc e o f authorshi p derive d fro m resemblanc e o f styl e manne r metho d an d dictio n mus t b e absolutel y worthless 1 . TH E MATERIAL S O F EHETORIC .

Leavin

g fo r th e presen t th e importan t subjec t o f th e relatio n o f Rhetoric , a s a metho d o r syste m o f proof , t o th e

Dialectical

, an d Demonstrativ e o r Scientifi c Methods , t o b e reserve d fo r subsequen t consideratio n i n mor e immediat e connexio n wit h th e introductor y chapter s o f th e first book , w e wil l no w pas s o n t o th e examinatio n o f th e rhetorica l metho d i n respec t o f it s materials , th e object s tha t i t deal s with .

Rhetoric

, lik e Dialectics , ma y discus s anythin g : an y proble m tha t ca n b e brough t forwar d upo n an y subjec t 1 Anothe r argumen t agains t th e Aristotle' s Ehetoric , i n Schneidewin' s genuinenes s o f thi s boo k i s derive d Philologus , Vol . iv . No . i. , briefl y fro m th e entr y i n Diogenes ' lis t o f a argue s th e questio n o f th e genuinenes s wor k ire pi ρητορική* α. β. whic h i s as- o f th e book , an d th e probabilitie s o f sumed(i) t o be correc t (2 ) t o designat e it s earlie r o r late r compositio n tha n ou r Ehetoric , an d (3 ) t o sho w tha t tha t o f th e tw o preceding , an d decides ,

Aristotle'

s Ehetori c consiste d o f onl y lik e a ma n o f sense , fo r th e integrit y tw o books . Brandis , i n a pape r o n o f th e wor k a s w e no w hav e it . 9 whatsoeve r ma y b e submitte d t o dialectica l examinatio n : an d Rhetori c i n lik e manne r ma y dea l wit h an y topi c tha t ca n b e presente d t o i t : i t i s nrepl άπαντος, irepl του Βοθέντος κ Eve n scienc e i s no t exclude d fro m it s domain 1 : only , i f an y questio n o f specia l scienc e ha s t o b e argued , a s ma y some time s happe n i n a cour t o f justice , o r an y result s o r conclu sion s o f scienc e stated , th e subjec t mus t b e treate d popularly an d mad e intelligibl e t o a n unscientifi c audience : n o lon g train s o f demonstrativ e syllogism s ca n b e admitted , n o prin ciple s o r axiom s o f an y specia l scienc e ma y b e adduce d o r argue d fro m : whe n dialectic s o r rhetori c desert s it s common ground , an d employ s eithe r th e metho d o r specia l principle s (ïStac άρχαυ) o f an y particula r science , i t become s somethin g else ; i t quit s it s ow n provinc e an d trespasse s upo n a n alie n territory . I t resemble s dialectic s als o i n bein g indifferen t t o th e trut h o f it s conclusions , s o fa r a s i t i s considere d a s a n art, an d th e speake r a s a n artist: bot h o f the m argu e in differentl y o n eithe r sid e o f a question , an d ma y prov e th e affirmativ e o r negativ e accordin g a s eithe r o f thes e happe n t o sui t th e reasoner' s immediat e purpose . Thi s i s on e im portan t poin t o f differenc e betwee n thes e tw o an d scienc e o r demonstratio n : o f thi s trut h i s th e direc t object , an d th e thinke r i s not indifferen t t o th e conclusion .

Theoreticall

y the n Rhetori c i s universa l i n it s applica tion : bu t practicall y i t i s limite d fo r th e mos t par t t o a particula r clas s o f phenomena , wit h whic h it s tw o mos t im portan t branches , th e - deliberativ e an d th e judicial , almos t exclusivel y deal , namel y huma n action s character s motive s an d feelings ; an d s o i t become s closel y connecte d wit h th e stud y o f Politic s (includin g Ethics) , whic h treat s o f mora l socia l an d politica l phenomena , o f ma n a s a n individua l an d a s a membe r o f society . Henc e i t appear s (Rhet . I . 2 . 7) tha t Rhetori c ma y b e considere d a s a n offshoot , no t onl y o f

Dialectics

, bu t als o o f Politic s : o f th e first , becaus e th e enthy -

Compar

e Quint . Inst . ι . ίο , 34 - 49
, o n th e stud y o f Geometry . 10 même , th e rhetorica l instrumen t o f proof (πίστις), i s a kin d o f syllogis m ; an d o f th e second , becaus e th e rhetoricia n ha s especiall y t o tak e accoun t o f "character s an d virtue s an d feeling s an d mus t kno w wha t eac h o f the m i s i n itsel f an d it s attribute s o r properties , an d wha t i s thei r origi n an d th e mode s o f thei r excitement. " Henc e als o rhetoric , "owin g eithe r t o th e ignoranc e o r th e quacker y " o f it s preceding - professor s ha s " assume d th e guis e o f Politics, " an d take n a plac e i n genera l educatio n t o whic h i t i s b y n o mean s entitled . No w huma n action s character s an d motives , a s wel l a s futur e events , an d th e fact s an d circumstance s o f dail y lif e whic h ar e constantl y brough t int o question , ar e b y thei r ver y natur e onl y contingen t an d probable ; nothin g ca n b e predicted o f the m wit h certainty ; the y canno t b e reduce d t o necessar y laws , o r for m th e subjec t o f necessar y conclusions : the y ar e essentiall y 'probable / βίκότα, an d onl y 'usual ' cw ç ίπί το ποΧύ (nothin g ca n b e pronounce d o f the m universally), o r eVSe^o -

μενα

αλλω 9 €χ€ΐν, ' contingent / ' admittin g o f bein g i n mor e tha n on e way / uncertai n i n th e even t ; an d henc e rhetori c wit h fe w exception s exclude s th e universa l an d necessary , an d deal s onl y wit h th e probable ; an d thi s i s th e essential differenc e betwee n i t an d th e scientifi c o r demonstrativ e pro cesses . Se e Rhet . I . 2 . 14 . Th e matte r o f rhetoric , bein g suc h a s i s abov e described , consist s i n thing s tha t w e de liberat e about , irepl ων βονλβνόμβθα καϊ τέχνας μη βχομβν Rhet . Ι . 2 . 1 2 ; bu t n o on e deliberate s abou t tha t whic h i s unalterabl e o r necessary , f an d ca n onl y b e i n one way / ovOeU Se βουΚευβται ττβρϊ των μη βνδβχρμένων αλλω ? εχ€ΐν, Eth . Nie . VI . 2 . an d so , a s before , w e conclud e tha t w e deliberat e irepl

των

φαινομένων ένΒέχβσθαι άμφοτέρως βγβιν Rhet . I . 2 . 1 2 "fo r abou t thing s fixed an d unalterable , past , present , o r future , n o on e deliberate s under that supposition, becaus e ther e i s nothin g t o b e gaine d b y doin g so. " lb. 1 An d con - 1 O f th e subject s whic h admit , an d Ethics , in . 5 . T o th e forme r o f th e d o no t admit , o f deliberation , ther e i s tw o classe s belong , thing s eterna l an d a n ingeniou s analysi s i n th e Nicom . unchangeable , a s th e orde r o f th e uni - 11 sequently , rhetori c accept s either sid e o f a n alternative , an d ma y conclud e either o f tw o opposites , τάναντία συΧΚαγίζβται. "Ar s enim, " say s Antoniu s (Cic . d e Orat . II . 7 . 30
) "earu m reru m es t qua e sciuntu r : oratori s aute m omni s acti o opinioni - bus , no n scientia , continetur . Na m e t apu d eo s dicimu s qu i nesciunt , e t e a dicimu s qua o nescimu s ipsi" - a differen t rea so n assigne d fo r th e sam e fact , tha t th e spher e o f th e rhetoricia n i s th e contingen t an d variabl e an d uncertain . I t follow s o f cours e fro m al l thi s tha t rhetori c i s no t a n exac t science , whic h start s fro m peculia r axiom s an d prin ciple s o f it s own , an d th e conclusion s o f whic h ar e al l univer sa l an d necessar y : it s processe s mus t therefor e b e limite d b y th e natur e o f it s materials , th e probabl e an d contingent , an d withi n tha t spher e i t mus t rest . Wha t i s sai d o f th e stud y o f

Ethics

, Eth . Nicom . I . 2 , wil l appl y equall y t o Rhetoric . " Suc h the n i s th e ai m o f ou r science , whic h i s a kin d o f

Politics

. Th e treatmen t o f i t mus t b e considere d sufficien t i f it s distinctnes s an d exactnes s b e onl y i n proportio n t o it s subjec t matte r (o r materials ) fo r nic e elaborat e finish (exact nes s i n detai l i n carryin g ou t th e work ) i s no t t o b e looke d fo r i n al l subject s o f inquir y alike , precisel y a s i s th e cas e wit h th e production s o f certai n art s an d manufacture s [a s bronz e fo r exampl e wil l no t admi t o f s o 'hig h a finish 1 a s marble , o r granit e a s alabaster]/ ' Then , afte r speakin g o f th e uncertaint y an d irregularit y o f men' s motive s an d aim s arisin g fro m thei r vacillatin g an d erroneou s notion s o f wha t vers e o r th e incommensurabilit y o f th e diamete r an d sid e o f th e square ; o r eve n o f thing s * i n motio n ' (liabl e t o change ) whe n th e orde r o f the m i s actuall y constan t an d invariabl e (ad

κατ

ά ταύτα γινομένων) whethe r tha t b e a consequenc e o f necessit y o r natur e o r procee d fro m an y othe r cause , a s th e revolution s o r rising s an d setting s o f su n an d stars . No r o f thing s i n whic h ther e i s n o constanc y a t all , a s drough t an d rai n ; no r o f thing s purel y accidental . Wha t w e do deliberat e abou t ar e thing s whic h ar e i n ou r ow n power : everythin g whic h depend s upo n huma n volitio n an d huma n ac tion , an d th e su m o f th e whol e is , tha t w e deliberat e abou t thing s whic h ar e no t invariable , bu t usual , (thing s * fo r th e mos t part, ' whic h generall y con for m t o a rule ) an d o f uncertai n issue , an d indefinite . 12 i s Kokov, δίκαιον, αηαθον^ an d th e absenc e o f fixed mora l principles , h e proceeds , "I n dealin g therefor e wit h suc h material s an d arguin g fro m suc h (uncertain ) premisse s o r principles , w e mus t b e conten t t o exhibi t th e trut h roughl y (coarsely ) an d i n mer e outline 1 ; and , a s th e material s an d principle s o f ou r subjec t ar e mer e genera l probabilities , t o b e satisfie d wit h th e lik e conclusions . An d i n th e sam e wa y w e ar e boun d t o acquiesc e i n th e treatmen t o f any (βκαστον) subjec t : fo r a cultivate d intellec t (th e ma n o f genuin e sense , enlightmen t an d powe r o f judging , whic h i s conferre d b y educatio n an d knowledg e o f th e subject ) i s show n i n lookin g fo r scientifi c exactnes s i n an y branc h o f knowledg e onl y s o fa r a s th e natur e o f th e subjec t admit s : fo r i t seem s t o b e muc h th e sam e thin g t o b e satisfie d wit h plausibl e reason in g i n a mathematicia n a s t o requir e exac t demonstratio n fro m a rhetorician.' ' Everythin g i n rhetori c mus t b e intelli gibl e an d popula r : n o lon g train s o f syllogisti c reasonin g (comp . π . 21
. 3 ) whic h ordinar y peopl e canno t follow : n o rigorousl y exac t definitions - thi s i s speciall y mentione d i n Rhet . I . 10 . 19 . Set Be νομίζβιν ικανούς elvai τους ορούς, èàv

ωσι

irepl έκαστου μήτβ άσαφβις μήτ€ άκριββίς - but onl y suc h a s ar e popularl y curren t an d recognise d : n o appeal s t o th e axiom s o r principle s o f th e exac t an d specia l sciences , whic h requir e a specia l trainin g an d study , bu t onl y t o thos e uni versa l an d genera l principles , whic h ar e commo n t o al l rea soning , an d accepte d an d understoo d b y al l mankin d alike 2 . 1 T o exhibi t th e fact s o r phenomen a i n a mer e roug h skete h o r outline ; withou t finishing th e pictur e b y filling i n al l th e details , παχυλως καϊ τύπφ. 2 T o th e sam e effec t Hermogenes ,

τέχνη

ρητορ. irepl των στάσεων, su b mit .

2στι

τοίννν αμφισβήτησα XoyiKrj επί

μέρους

εκ των παρ έκάστοις κειμένων

νόμων

η έθών irepl του νομισθέντος δι

καίου

η του καλοϋ η του συμφέροντος η

καϊ

πάντων άμα ή τίνων, τα yàp ώς

αληθώς

τ€ καϊ καθόλου καλόν ή συμφέ

ñïí

ç ôá ôïéáýôá îçôÝßí ïõ ñçôïñéêÞò.

Cicero

, Orat . xxxili . 117
. Eri t igitu r hae c faculta s i n eo , quer n volumu s ess e eloquentem , u t definir e re m possi t nequ e i d facia t tar n press e e t angust e qua m i n illi s eruditissimi s disputatio - nibu s fieri solet , se d quu m expla n atiu s tur n etia m uberiu s e t a d commun e judiciu m popularemqu e intelligentia m accommodatius . d e Orat . 11 . xxxviii . 159
. Hae c eni m nostr a orati o multi - tudini s es t auribu s accommodanda , a d 13 Wit h regar d t o th e definition s i n particula r Aristotle' s prac tic e i n thi s wor k i s i n stric t conformit y wit h hi s precept .

Compar

e fo r exampl e th e elaborat e an d carefull y constructe d definitio n o f virtu e i n th e Nicomachea n Ethic s II . 6 . init . whic h i s a complet e descriptio n o f al l th e essentia l an d characteristi c point s b y whic h i t i s distinguishe d fro m othe r !£ei ç o r 'states ' intellectua l an d moral , wit h th e extremel y superficia l an d incomplet e on e give n i n Bhet . I . 9 . 4 : o r th e popula r classificatio n o f th e severa l form s o f governmen t i n Ehet . I . 8 , wit h th e studie d analysi s an d definition s o f th e sam e i n Polit , in . 7 - 1 8 an d IV . 1 . an d Eth . Nicom . vin . 12 .

Anothe

r remarkabl e exampl e i s th e definitio n o f pleasur e a s a κίνησα i n Ehet . 1.11 . 1 , whic h h e himsel f argue s agains t an d condemn s i n Eth . Nic . Χ . 3. 1 Agai n i n d e Anim . I . 1 . h e point s ou t th e differenc e betwee n th e definition s o f ορηή whic h woul d b e give n b y a natura l philosophe r an d a dialec tician : th e on e woul d sa y i t i s a ζβσις τον πβρ\ καρδίαν

αίματος

καΐ θβρμον, th e othe r a n ορβξις άντίλνπήσβως η τι

τοιοντον

: th e definitio n o f thi s πάθος give n i n Ehet . Π . 2 . 1 , makin g a ver y nea r approac h t o th e latter . Th e on e de scribe s th e feelin g a s i t exhibit s itsel f i n th e intercours e betwee n ma n an d ma n an d i s therefor e suite d fo r th e pur pose s o f rhetori c an d dialectics , th e othe r endeavour s t o pene trat e int o it s tru e natur e an d t o stat e wha t i t is (την ονσίαν).

Similarl

y th e definitio n o f th e πάθη i n genera l (Xoyot evvkot) whic h i s foun d i n th e treatis e d e Anim a (ι . 1 . 15.) , an d th e fe w consideration s tha t lea d t o it , ar e sufficien t t o sho w ho w differen t woul d hav e bee n th e poin t o f vie w an d th e con sequen t mod e o f treatment , ha d the y bee n ther e analyse d i n detail , fro m tha t whic h i s adopte d a s appropriat e i n th e

Ehetori

c : i n th e forme r w e shoul d hav e ha d thei r natur e an d origi n examined , an d a s fa r a s possibl e accounte d for , i n oblectando s aniraos , a d impellendos , a d e a probanda , qua e no n aurifici s stater a se d popular i quada m trutin a examinantur . 1 O n th e definitio n o f pleasure . Se e als o Eth . Eud . Z . 13 . 1133
. a . 14 , 15. , an d Fritzsche' s note . 14 connexio n wit h th e growt h an d developmen t o f th e vita l principl e o r sou l pervadin g th e entir e animate d world , an d thei r essenc e expresse d i n a transcendenta l definitio n : i n th e latte r the y ar e describe d merel y a s the y exhibi t an d expres s themselve s outwardly , an d wit h referenc e t o th e occasion s an d circumstance s o f thei r excitement , an d th e object s to ward s whic h the y ar e directed 1 , τέκτων και γ€ωμέτρη<; 8ta-

φβρόι/τως

βιτιζητονσι την ορθήρ, 6 μβν yàp € ' όσον χρήσιμη •7Γ/0Ο 9 τ α epyoV) ο èè τι iartv ή ττοίον τι' θεατής yàp τάλη-

θούς.

Eth . Nie . ι . 9 .

RHETORI

C A N AR T O R A FACULTY ? S o fa r w e hav e bee n engage d upo n a compariso n o f

Aristotle'

s view s o f th e natur e an d meanin g o f Rhetori c wit h thos e o f hi s Sophistica l predecessors , an d a descriptio n o f som e o f th e leadin g peculiaritie s o f hi s mod e o f treatin g th e subject . W e wil l no w pas s o n t o th e consideratio n o f hi s definitio n o f Rhetoric , an d th e genu s t o whic h i t belongs , whethe r scienc e o r art , facult y o r practic e ; an d compar e i t wit h othe r definitions , an d othe r opinion s tha t hav e bee n hel d upo n th e sam e subject .

Rhetori

c i s certainl y no t a science . W e hav e alread y see n tha t whe n a rhetoricia n trespasse s upo n the " field o f science , o r demonstratio n wit h it s regula r syllogism s an d necessar y an d universa l conclusions , h e lose s hi s prope r characte r an d become s fo r th e nonc e a ma n o f scienc e ; i n thi s alie n pro vinc e h e assume s a n alie n character .

Accordin

g t o th e poin t o f vie w fro m whic h i t i s regarded , 1 Se e Brandis , trac t o n th e Rheto ri c i n Schneid . Philol. , u . s . p . 27
.

Brandi

s goe s o n t o compar e th e tw o list s o f πάθη, i n respec t o f th e selec tio n an d mod e o f treatmen t o f them , whic h occu r i n th e Nicom . Ethic s I L 4 . an d th e Rhetoric , 11 . 2 - IT, respec tively : an d afterward s proceed s t o a mor e genera l compariso n o f th e latte r treatis e wit h th e Ethic s an d Politic s i n th e point s wher e the y com e int o contact . O n th e definition s o f Rhe toric , se e Trendelenbur g o n d e Anim . p . 177
. 15

Rhetori

c ma y b e considere d eithe r a s a n ar t o r a faculty .

Quidam

, say s Quintiiian , Inst . Orat . II . xv . 2. , rhetorice n vim tantum , quida m scientiam se d no n virtutem , quida m nsum, quida m art&m quidem , se d a scienti a e t virtut e dijunctam , quida m etia m pravitatem quanda m artis, i d es t κακοτεγνίαν nominaverunt . Accordin g t o Cicero , d e Orat . I . 21
. 96
. rhe tori c is , ve l studiu m ve l artificiu m ve l facultas . Compar e d e

Invent

. I . 1 . 2 . Looke d a t theoretically , absolutel y i n itself , an d generally , απλώς, icaff αυτό, i t i s a n art , layin g dow n rule s fo r practic e an d accompanie d wit h illustration s i n th e shap e o f τόποι : s o fa r a s i t manifest s itsel f i n it s practica l an d relativ e aspect , an d individuall y a s exercise d b y it s pro fessors , προς τι, καθ 1 εκαστον, i t assume s th e for m o f a Βνναμις o r individua l faculty , whic h i s exercise d "i n th e considera tio n o f th e mean s o f persuasio n possibl e i n an y subjec t what ever, " Rhet . I . 2 . 1 . Comp . § 7 an d I . 4 . 6 . An d s o art s i n thei r practica l aspec t ar e calle d δυνάμεις i n Eth . Nic . 1.1 . bis , agai n i n x . 10 , an d Polit , II L 12 . vin . 1. , wher e i t i s couple d wit h επιστημαι, th e sam e art s regarde d fro m th e theoretica l poin t o f view . I t follow s fro m thi s tha t Alexande r Aphrod . ca n scarcel y b e righ t whe n h e tell s u s nea r th e beginnin g o f hi s Commentar y o n th e Topic s tha t Dialectic s an d Rhetori c ar e calle d δυνάμει becaus e the y ar e no t boun d t o follow , o r develop e themselve s in , on e direction , bu t ma y conclud e indifferentl y upo n eithe r sid e o f an y questio n propose d t o them , ομοίως την των αντικείμενων Βειξιν σκοπον εχονσι* Schol . a d Arist . p . 251
. b . 39
. Bekker . Thi s i s undoubtedl y tru e o f Dialectic s an d Rhetoric , bu t i t i s no t tru e o f Politic s an d th e othe r art e t o whic h th e ter m i s equall y applied . T o

Politic

s an d Ethic s o r th e militar y ar t o r medicine , i t cer tainl y i s not a matte r o f indifferenc e whic h sid e o f a questio n the y tak e ; the y ai m a t trut h an d reality , αλήθευα, an d i n s o fa r partak e o f th e natur e o f science . Indee d a s Aristotl e ha s expressl y notice d this , Rhet . I . 1 . 12 . των άλλων τεχνών

οιδεμία

τάναντία συλλογίζεται, i t i s al l th e mor e remarkabl e tha t Alexande r shoul d hav e overlooke d it .

Alexande

r i n hi s remar k i s referrin g t o th e antithesi s o f 16

δύναμις

an d evepyeia. O f th e forme r i t i s characteristi c tha t i t ma y b e develope d i n opposit e directions , tha t i t i s equall y capabl e o f producin g contraries , wherea s th e develope d ac - tualise d δνναμις, whe n i t ha s becom e a n evepyeia, lose s thi s capacity , an d acquire s on e fixed directio n fro m whic h i t can no t depart . O n th e differenc e i n thi s respec t betwee n phy sica l an d menta l o r mora l δυνάμεις, an d upo n th e entir e subject , se e Si r A . Grant , o n Ethics , Essa y iv 1 . Bu t Ar t agai n i s twofol d ; fo r eithe r i t ma y b e regarde d subjectively, a s a e^ç , o r state of mind - and thi s i s th e vie w tha t i s take n o f i t i n th e contraste d definition s o f ar t an d science , i n Eth