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TheAztecEmpire

AGUIDETOTHEEXHIBITIONFORTEACHERS

TheAztecEmpireisorganizedbytheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumincollaborationwiththeConsejo N a c i o n a lparalaCulturaylasArtes ( CONACULTA)andtheInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria ( I N

AH)ofMexico.

M a j o rsponsorsofthisexhibitionare A d d i tionalsupportprovidedby T h

isexhibitionhasalsobeenmadepossibleinpartbyanindemnityfromtheFederalCouncilontheArtsandtheHumanities,together

w iththegeneroussupportoftheLeadershipCommitteeforTheAztecEmpire,GRUMA,ALFA,andConEdison. T ransportationassistanceprovidedby M e d iasupportprovidedbyThirteen/WNET S p e c ialthankstotheEmbassyofMexicointheU.S.,theEmbassyoftheUnitedStatesinMexico,andtheConsulateGeneralof M e xicoinNewYork. MAP T

IMELINE

USINGTHISGUIDE

INTRODUCTION

MEXICO-TENOCHTITLAN,AXISMUNDIOFTHEUNIVERSE

T E M P

LOMAYOR

L E

GENDARYCULTURES-AZTECANCESTORS

M E X

ICANBESTIARY

P E

OPLESANDSOCIETIESOFTHEAZTECWORLD

N

OBLELIFEANDEVERYDAYLIFE

GODSANDRITUALS

M

ANUSCRIPTSANDCALENDARS

C

ULTURESSUBJUGATEDBYTHEAZTECS

T

HETARASCANEMPIRE

T

HETWILIGHTOFTHEEMPIRE

V

OCABULARY

BIBLIOGRAPHYANDSUGGESTEDRESOURCES

C R E

DITSANDACKNOWLEDGMENTS

TableofContents

5 6 8 1 0 1 3 1 7 2 1 2 5 2 9 3 3 3 7 4 1 4 5 4 9 5 3 5 6 5 8 6 1

Timelin

5

1200BC

9 0 0BC 6 0 0BC 3 0 0BC 0 250AD
450AD
600AD
750AD
900AD

1200AD

1492AD

1521AD

OlmecTeotihuacánToltec-MayaZapotec

MayaMixtec

ToltecAztec

P r e classic C lassic P o s t c lassic Map A Z T

ECEMPIRE

T E N

OCHTITLAN(MEXICOCITY)

P

ACIFICOCEANTARASCANEMPIRE

GULFOFMEXICO

V E R A C R U Z Thisguide,whichaccompaniestheSolomonR.Guggenheimexhibition T h eAztecEmpire,isdesignedtoprovideideas,activities,andresources t h a texploreissuesraisedbythisexhibition.Theexhibitionandguide f o c u sonthevariedhistoricalandculturalinfluencesthathave c o n tributedtoAztecartanditsdevelopmentasculturallyrich,visually e n g a g ing,andemotionallycompelling. F o rAztecs,artwasamaterialmanifestationoftheirvisionoftheuniverse; i tssymbolswerethereflectionoftheirreligious,economic,politicaland s o c i a lconcepts.Theobjectsthattheycreatedweredesignedtobeused a n dintegratedintodailylife.Althoughvisitorscanappreciatethese w o rksfortheirbeauty,expressivequalities,andworkmanship,theyare f ragmentsdislocatedfromtheirpast. T h eAztecEmpireattheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseum,onview O c tober15,2004-February13,2005,representsthelargestsurveyof A ztecartevertohavebeenstagedoutsideMexico.Itbringstogether m o rethan430worksdrawnfrompublicandprivatecollections,including a rchaeologicalfindsofthelastdecadeneverbeforeseenoutside M e x ico.Organizedthematically,theexhibitionexploresallaspectsof A ztecreligious,social,andeconomiclifethroughthesheerdiversityand r a n geofartifactsondisplay:frommonumentalstonesculptureto m iniaturegoldobjects,andfromintricateturquoisemosaicstorare p ictorialmanuscripts(orcodices). T h isguideisnotintendedasacomprehensiveoverviewofAztecartor h istory;ratheritfocusesonanimportantworkselectedfromeachofthe m a jorthemesintheexhibition,andprovidessuggestionsfordiscussion q u e stionsandclassroomactivities(FurtherExplorations)intendedto e n c o u ragestudentstospeculateanddevelophypothesesbothabout A ztecsocietyandtheobjectstheyleftbehind.Itishopedthatstudents w illbeabletorelatemuchofthematerialtotheirownlives-citingboth

Usingthis

8 9 s i milaritiesanddifferences.Thebackoftheguideincludesvocabulary a n dphoneticspellingsforselectedAztecwords,aswellasalistof a d d itionalresources.Theguideisavailableinprintedformandon t h emuseum"sWebsiteatwww.guggenheim.org. T h edesignandcontentofthesematerialshaveathree-foldpurpose: •Toassisteducatorsindevelopingclassroomunitsfocusingon T h eAztecEmpire,andaspectsofPrecolumbianNorthAmerica •Toprovideeducatorswiththetoolstoconductaself-guided museumvisit •Toexpandupon,themesandideasimbeddedintheexhibition B yexaminingtheserepresentativeworks,aculturalcontextemerges t ohighlightthemodesofexpressionthatarethehallmarksofAztec c u lture.Althoughtheguideisdesignedtosupporttheexhibitionand w illbemostusefulinconjunctionwithatriptothemuseum,itisalso i n tendedtoserveasaresourcelongaftertheexhibitionhasclosed. B e forebringingaclasstothemuseum,teachersareinvitedtovisitthe e xhibition,readtheguide,anddecidewhichaspectsaremostrelevant f o rtheirstudents. T h eexhibitionhasbeenorganizedbytheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumincollaborationwiththeConsejo N a c i o n a lparalaCulturaylasArtes(CONACULTA)andtheInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria(INAH). G u e s tcuratorisFelipeSolís,DirectoroftheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologíainMexicoCity,co-curatorofthe l a r g e - s c a l esurveyAztecsattheRoyalAcademyinLondonin2003,andoneoftheworld"sforemostauthorities o nAztecartandculture.ExhibitiondesignisbyEnriqueNortenofTENArquitectos+J.MeejinYoon. 1 I ntroduction 1 0 T h eAztecswereamighty c ivilizationthatflourishedin C e n tralAmericabetween1325 a n d1521,whentheywereforced t osurrendertoaninvading S p a n isharmyledbyHernán C o rtés.Fromtheirmagnificent c a p ital,Tenochtitlan,they g o vernedavastempirethat s t retchedfrompresent-day M e x icotoGuatemala,andfromthe A tlantictothePacificoceans(see m a p ).Theyareoftenremembered a safierceandbloodthirstyrace, a g g ressiveinbattleandengaging i nhumansacrificetoappease t h e irvariousgods.However,as t h isexhibitionshows,theAztecs w e realsoextremelycivilizedand s o p h i sticated.Theyproduced h ighlyskilledandsensitiveart, c o n c e ivedperhapsthemost a d vancedcalendaroftheirtime, a n dbuiltextraordinarytemples i ncleanandwell-organizedcities. T h eAztecsorMexica(asthey c a lledthemselvesandarereferred t obyhistorians),migratedthrough M e x icoinsearchoflandtosettle. A c c ordingtothemyth,theAztecs" t riballeader,Huitzilopochtliforetoldthathispeopleshould settlewheretheysawaneagle o nacactuswithasnakeinits b e a k.Afteralongjourney,the

Aztecsarrivedatalake,called

LakeTetzcoco,inMexico"scentral

h i g h l a n dbasin.Inthemiddleof thelakewasanisland,andonthis i slandtheysawthestrangesight thatHuitzilopochtlihadpredicted.

Havingarrivedattheirpromised

l a n d ,theAztecsclaimedtheisland a n ditssurroundingfertileland, a n d ,in1325,foundedacitythey n a m e dTenochtitlan,"theplace o fthestonecactus."Theybuilt atempleinthecenterofthecity (latercalledtheTemploMayor, o rGreatTemple,bytheSpanish), w h i c htheydedicatedto

Huitzilopochtli,theirpatrongod.

Intime,Tenochtitlanwouldgrow

tobecomeabeautifuland p rosperouscityofabout250,000 i n h a b i tants,theheartofavast

Aztecempire.WhentheSpanish

a rrivedtoconquertheAztecsin

1519,theywereawestruckby

thegreatpyramidstoweringover thesacredcenter,thedazzling p a l a c e sandcolorfulmarketsWithsuchwonderfulsightstogazeonwedidnotknowwhattosay,orif t h iswasrealthatwesawbeforeoureyes. B e r n a lDiaz,a26-year-oldconquistador(Spanishconqueror), whofoughtinCortés"sarmy.TheConquestofNewSpain,1580s. sellingabewilderingvariety o ffoodandluxuries. F e a r lesswarriorsandpragmatic b u ilders,theAztecscreatedan e mpireduringthe15thcentury t h a twassurpassedinsizeinthe A mericasonlybythatoftheIncas i nPeru.Asearlytextsandmodern a rchaeologycontinuetoreveal, b e yondtheirconquests,there w e r emanypositiveachievements: •theformationofahighly s p e c i a lizedandstratifiedsociety a n danimperialadministration •theexpansionofatrading n e tworkaswellasatribute s y s tem •thedevelopmentand m a intenanceofasophisticated a g riculturaleconomy,carefully a d justedtotheecology •andthecreationofan i n tellectualandreligiousoutlook t h a theldsocietytobean i n tegralpartofthecosmos. T h eyearlyroundofritesand c e remoniesinthecitiesof T e n o c h titlanandneighboring T e tzcoco,andtheirsymbolicart a n darchitecture,gaveexpressiontoanawarenessofthe i n t e rdependenceofnature a n dhumanity. W h e ntheSpanishdefeated theAztecstheydestroyedmuch o fTenochtitlanandrebuiltitas M e xicoCity,thecapitalofmodern- d a yMexico.Thelegacyofthe A z tecsremains,however,inthe formofarchaeologicalruinssuch a stheTemploMayor,theheart o fAztecreligiousactivityand thesymboliccenteroftheempire. T o d a y"sMexicansareveryproud o ftheirAztecpastandcontinue torememberthetraditionsand p r a c ticetheartformsoftheir a n c e s tors.Morethantwomillion p e o p l estillspeaktheindigenous l a n g u a g eoftheAztecs,Nahuatl. H o w e ver,perhapsthemost p o i g n a n treminderoftheAztecs i stheMexicannationalflag,which featuresthelegendaryeagle, c a c tus,andsnakeemblemofthe l o n g - b u riedheartofthemighty A z tecempire,Tenochtitlan. 1 1

121Fragmentofan

a n t h r o p o m o r p h i cbrazier A z t e c , c a .1300 F i r e dclayandpigment, 1

8x22x9cmMuseo

U n i v e r s i t a r i odeCienciasy A r t e ,UNAM,MexicoCity 0 8 - 7 4 1 8 1 4 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 2 T h egreattempleknownas t h eTemploMayorofTenochtitlan s y mbolizestheaxismundi,the A zteccenteroftheworld,where t h esky,theearth,andthe u n d e rworldmet.Accordingto A ztecworldview,theuniverse c o n sistedofthreelayers.The m iddlelayerwastheearthlyone, i n h a b itedbyhumans.Abovethat w o r ld,theAztecsimagedthirteen l e v e lsorheavens,Omeyocan, t h e"placeofduality,"beingthe u p p e rmost.Belowtheearthly l a y e r,thereweretheninelevels o ftheunderworld.Thelowest o fthesewastherealmof M i c tlantecuhtli,theLordof t h eLandoftheDead. E a c hofthefourcardinaldirections r a d i a tedoutfromtheTemplo M a y o randwasassociatedwith adeity,abird,acolor,andaglyph. T h edualtempleroseaboveall o therbuildingsintheSacred P recinct.Thesouthernhalfwas d e d icatedtoHuitzilopochtli,solar a n dwargod,whilethenorthern h a lfwasdedicatedtoTlaloc,the g o dofrain,water,andtheearth"s f e r tility.TogetherTlalocandHuitzilopochtli,encompassthe n a turalandsocialuniverseof theAztecempire.WhileTlaloc w a sagodofearthandrain,

Huitzilopochtlistoodforthesun

a n dthesky.Tlalocmarkedthe timeofrains;Huitzilopochtli scorchedtheearth,withsun a n dwar,inthedrymonths.Tlaloc a n dHuitzilopochtlitogether representthecycleoflifeand fertility,andmarkthegeographic, ritual,andsymbolicheartofthe u n i verse,unitingoldandnew, c e n terandperiphery,inthesacred a rtificialmountainloomingover theAzteccapital. M exico-Tenochtitlan,AxisMundi 13

FRAGMENTOFAN

A

NTHROPOMORPHICBRAZIER

T h eAztecwereknownnotonly f o rtheirsculpture,butalsofor t h e irexpressiveandsensitive p o e try.Thesculptureandpoem b e lowprovideaglimpseinto w a y sthatthecyclesoflifewere p o rtrayed.Lookcarefullyatthe s c u l p ture.Thethreefaces r e p resentthecycleoflife.Inthe m iddlewecanseethefaceofa y o u n gman,withallhisteethand w e a r inganornamentbetween t h enoseandupperlip.Oneither s i d earetwohalvesoftheface o fanold,toothlessman;these t wofacesareframedbythe s y mmetricallydividedfaceof acorpsewithitseyesclosed. T h ethirteendecorativerings(four o ntheyoungman"shead,nineon t h ecorpse"s)representtheparts o facalendarcycle.Nezahualcoyotl,thepoet-kingof T e xcocowrites:

I,Nezahualcoyotl,askthis:

Isittrueonereallyliveson

theearth? N o tforeveronearth,onlyalittle w h i l ehere. T h o u g hitbejadeitfallsapart, thoughitbegolditwearsaway, N o tforeveronearth,onlyalittle w h i l ehere. M i c h a e lD.Coe,Mexico:From theOlmecstotheAztecs, (NewYork:ThamesandHudson, 2

002),fifthedition,p.223.

1 4

DiscussionQuestions

•Afterreadingthepoem,describe itsmeaninginyourownwords. •Whatsimilaritiescanyoufind inthepoemandthesculpture. W h a tdifferences?FurtherExplorations •TheartistwhomadetheMask w i thThreeFaceschoseto representthelifecycleinthree stages.Howwouldyouchoose toportraythecycleoflife? W h a tphasesoflifewouldyou i n c l u d e ?Why? 1 5 154
E a g l ewarrior A z t e c , c a .1440-69 F i r e dclay,stucco,andpaint, 1 7

0x118x55cm

M u s e odelTemploMayor, I N A H ,MexicoCity10-220366 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 3 T h i spartoftheexhibitionis d e v o tedtothewealthof e x traordinaryartifactsexcavated f romthemostsignificantreligious b u i ldinginTenochtitlan,thegreat T e m p loMayor.WhentheAztecs f o u n d e dtheircapital,theybuilt atemple.Between1325and1521, e a c hAztecruleraddedanew o u t e rmostlayertothetempleout o frespecttothegodsandto e n s u r ethathisreignwouldbe i mmortalizedwithinthegreatstone s tructure.Thisimposingstructure l a yattheritualheartofthecity. I twasherethatpublicrituals, i n c ludinghumansacrifice,took p l a c e .Likemostbuildingsofthe t ime,theTemploMayorwas c o v e r e dinstucco,atypeof p l a ster,andpainted.Large s c u lpturesfurtherdecorated t h ebuilding. R e c o g n i zingitsimportancetothe A ztecpeople,aftertheconquest t h eSpanishquicklydismantledthe T e m p loMayor,andreusedsomeof t h estoneintheirconstructionof acathedral,whichstilloccupies o n esideofMexicoCity"smain s q u a r e(orzócalo)today.Theyalsorecordedtheiraweupon s e e i n gthisamazingbuilding.

In1978workerscarryingout

r o u tinemaintenancework o nelectric-lightingequipment u n c o veredalargecircular s c u l p turethatwasidentifiedby a rchaeologistsasarepresentation o fthedismemberedbodyof C o yolxauhqui,goddessofthe moon.Thisfindledtotheeventual u n e a rthingoftheTemploMayor"s long-buriedfoundations.During theexcavation,itwasdiscovered thattheprecedingversionsofthe p yramidcomplexhadbeen p reservedintactwitheach s u b sequentruler"srebuilding, a n dsoarchaeologistswereable toidentifysevendifferentlayers, p e e l i n geachawaylikeanonion s kin.Over100sacrificialdeposits o rofferingscontainingmorethan 6 ,

000objectshavebeen

d i scoveredbuiltintothestructure. 17

TemploMayoranditsSymbolism

18 T h eexcavationsoftheTemplo M a yoralsoyieldedobjectsfrom o l d e rMesoamericanculturesthat t h eAztecshadheldinhighregard. T h eexhaustiverangeofofferings s u g g e s tsthattheAztecscreated t h eTemploMayorasamodelof e v e rythingthatcouldbefoundin t h euniverse,bothpastand p r e sent.Theorganizationofthe f o u r-sidedtemplestructureisalso t h o u g h ttoreflecttheAztec w o rldview,inwhichtheearthis u n d e r s toodtobeadisk, s u rroundedbywateranddivided i n tofourquarters.EAGLEWARRIOR T h emostprestigiousmilitary s o c i e tiesororderswerethose o ftheeagleandthejaguar. T h e sewarriorsworeeithereagle o rjaguarcostumes.Thislife-size s c u l p turerepresentsaneagle warrior.Itisoneofapairthatwas foundflankingadoorwaytothe c h a m b e rwheretheeaglewarriors met,nexttotheTempleMayor. T h eeaglewasthesymbolofthe s u n ,towhomallsacrificeswere o ffered.Thisisoneofthefinest e xamplesoflarge,hollowceramic s c u l p tureseverfoundintheValley o fMexico.

DiscussionQuestions

•Theeagleisoneofthegreatest p r e d a torsintheskies.Tothe A ztecitrepresentedthestrength a n dbraveryessentialtoa w a rrior.Whatcharacteristics d oyouassociatewitheagles? •Howdoyouimaginethejaguar w a rriorcostumeslooked?What c h a r a c teristicswouldajaguar w a rriorpossess?FurtherExplorations •Chooseanotheranimaland d e s i g nacostumethatutilizes i t scharacteristics.Whattraits w o u l dthiscostumelendto i t swearer? 19 86
M a s k T e o t i h u a c a n , c a .450, S t o n e ,turquoise,obsidian, a n dshell, 2 1 .

5x20cm

M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity. P h o t o :MichelZabé 4 T h eAztecswerenotthefirst p e o p letosettleinMexico. F o r2,500yearsbeforetheirarrival, t h eareahadbeenhometomany c ivilizations,includingtheOlmecs, T o l tecs,andthepeopleof T e o tihuacan.TheAztecswere t h elastofthesegreatculturesto s e t tlethere,and,asaresult,were h e a vilyinfluencedbythealready e stablishedgroups.Inorderto i n tegratethemselvesintothearea, t h e yadoptedthenativelanguage, N a h u a tl,andcopiedartisticstyles a n dtechniquesfromother M e s o a mericancultures. ( M e soamericaisthetermusedto d e scribethecentralregionofthe A mericasinhabitedbynative c ivilizationsbeforethearrivalof t h eSpanish.)ThewarlikeAztecs a lsoformedallianceswithnearby c o mmunitiestoconsolidatetheir m ilitarystrengthandexpand t h e irempire. P e rhapsthetwogreatest i n fluencesonAztecartandculture c a mefromtheancientcitiesof T e o tihuacanandTula.Beforeits d e c lineinA.D.700,Teotihuacan h a dbeenawondrouscityofabout200,000people,withextensive templecomplexesandspecialized c r a ftdistricts.Historically,itwas asiteofvitalimportancetothe A z tecs,whorevereditasthe C i t yoftheGods("Teotihuacan"). T h e yalsoincorporatedanumber o fTeotihuacanogodsintotheir p a n theon(familyofgods), i n c l u d i n gTlaloc,theraingod,and C h a l c h i u h t l i c u e("sheofthejade s kirt"),thegoddessoflakesand s treams.Aprincipaldeity,the r u l e r-priestknownasQuetzalcoatl ("featheredserpent"),was a d o p tedfromtheToltecs. T u l a("placeofreeds")and h o m etotheToltecs,thrivedafew h u n d r e dyearsafterTeotihuacan, a n dleftasimilarlyinfluential l e g a c ytolaterMesoamerican c u l t u res.TheAztecsbelieved theToltecswerethefounders o fcivilizationandcreditedthem w i t htheinventionofpaintingand s c u l p ture.Azteccraftsmenheld aprivilegedpositioninsociety, w o r kingforthenobility.Although theywereextremelyimportant, a r tistsneversignedtheirwork, w h i c hwasconsideredcollective. 2 1

LegendaryCultures-AztecAncestors

TheAztecstooktheirinspiration

f romTeotihuacan,Tula,Mixtec, O lmec,andotherancient M e s oamericancultures,adopting e verythingfromstone-cutting t e c h n iquestocalendarsystems. T h ediscoveryofobjectsfrom o therMesoamericancultures d u ringtheexcavationofthe T e m ploMayorsuggeststhat,Aztec r u lersbroughtartistsfromother a reas,includinggoldsmithsfrom t h eMixteca(nearpresent-day O a xaca),toworkinTenochtitlan. O vertimetheywoulddevelop t h e irownoriginalstyleand i c o n o g r a p h y,whichsprangfrom auniquelyAztecperspectiveon w a rfare,religionandcosmology.MASK T h i sburialmaskisfrom T e o tihuacan,adistinctive c i vilizationthatreacheditspeak a roundthesixthcentury,five h u n d redyearsbeforetheAztecs m i g ratedfromnorthwestern

Mexico.Theskilledcraftsmanship

a n dtheexquisitemosaic p a tterningwouldhavebeen g reatlyadmiredbytheAztecs, a sitisbypeopletoday.Thismask i sacknowledgedasoneofthe g reattreasuresofPre-Hispanic a rtinMesoamerica.Maskswere c o m m o n l yplacedovermummy b u n d l e stoprotectthedeceased fromthedangersoftheafterlife.

Madeofstone,itssurfaceis

c o veredinbitsofturquoise, o b sidian,andshell. 2 2 23
D iscussionQuestions •Expertshavedetermined t h a tthismaskwasprobably n o tmeanttobewornbya l ivingperson,butwasattached t oafunerarybundle.What a ttributesofthismaskleadto t h a tconclusion? •InAztecsocietycraftsmen p a ssedtheirskillsonto t h e irsons,whotookuptheir t r a d euponreachingmanhood. W h a ttoolsandskillsand m a terialswouldhavebeen r e q u i redtomakethismask? I ncontemporarysocietywhat s k illsarepassedfromparent t ochild? •Forhundredsofyears,masks m a d efrommanydifferent m a terials,havebeenfashioned b ypeopleintheAmericas. P recolumbianpeoplewereknown t ouseclay,gold,stone,obsidian, w o o d ,bone,shell,turquoise,jade, h a ir,cloth,emerald,alabaster, c o ral,greenstone,diorite,onyx, a n dleatherformasks. W h e rewouldtheyhavefound e a c hofthesematerials?•Thetechniqueofmosaichas b e e nusedfordecorationin manyculturesandcontinues tobepopulartoday.Wherehave y o useenthemosaictechnique? F u rtherExplorations •Mosaicscanbeexecuted inawiderangeofmaterials frompapertomarble.Some r e a d i l yavailableandinexpensive c h o i c e sincludeseeds,pebbles, s m a l lshells,buttonsandbeads. T h e rearemanyexcellentbooks thatprovidestep-by-step instructionsonthedesignand e xecutionofthisdecorative a rtform. 80
F l e a A z t e c , c a .1500 S t o n e ,22x21.5x36.5cm M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH M e x i c oCity, 1 0 - 5 9 4 0 3 9 5 T h egreatvarietyofsculpted a n imalforms,fromminusculefleas t olargecoiledserpents,highlight t h eimportanceofthenatural w o r ldinbothdailylifeand,more p rofoundly,inAztecreligiousand c o smologicalbeliefs.TheAztecs c reatedcarefullyobserved s c u l p turesofdomesticated a n imalssuchasturkeysanddogs, a swellaswildcoyotes,snakes, a n djaguars.Theintensityoftheir o b servationsandtheirabilityto c reatenaturalisticformsare e xemplifiedbythestonesculpture o faninsectthoughttobeaflea. T h eAztecartisthasmagnified t h istinycreaturemanyhundreds o ftimes,sothatfeaturesbarely v i sibletothenakedeyeare f u llydiscernible. T h eAztecsexplainedthe d istinguishingfeaturesandroles o fdifferentanimalsthrough e laborateandoftenentertaining m y ths.Onesuchstorytellshow, w h e nthemoonwasborn,itwas s obrightthatoneofthegods t h r e warabbitatitsfacetodullits g low.Thisiswhy,fortheAztecs, afullmoonappearstocontainthe s i lhouetteofarabbit.Therearemanyexamplesin

Aztecartinwhichgodssuch

a sQuetzalcoatl,the"feathered serpent,"takeahybridform,inhis c a seasnake-bird,combiningthe featuresorqualitiesoftwoanimals toemphasizeaspectsofthedeity"s m ythicalorsupernaturalpowers.

AGRICULTURE

Inadditiontotheanimalsthatthey

c o e xistedwith,theAztecswere a l soreliantontheplantworldto p rovidefoodforsustenanceand fibersfromwhichtoweavecloth, b a skets,andmats.AsAztec societywaslargelyagricultural,it w a sreliantontheweather,which w a ssometimesunpredictableor h a rsh.WhentheAztecsfirst settledaroundLakeTetzcoco, farmlandwasrelativelyscarce a n dsotheycreatedfloatingfields c a l l e dchinampas,whichwere a rrangedinagridpatternwith c a n a l sbetweeneachblock.

Heretheycultivatedpumpkins,

a vocados,andtomatoes(fromthe N a h u a tlaguacatl,tomatl),sweet p o tatoes,chillies,andbeans,as w e l lascorn,whichtheyusedto M exicanBestiary 2 5 26
m a k epancakesknownastortillas. T h emarket-abustling,vibrant, a n dnoisyplacecentraltoAztec d a ilylife-waswherefarmers, t raders,andcraftsmencameto e xchangetheirproduce.One S p a n ishconquistadorlater c o mmented:"Wewereastounded a tthenumberofpeopleand t h equantityofmerchandiseit c o n tained"(BernalDíaz,The C o n q u e stofNewSpain,1580s). V a l u a b leitemssuchasgolddust, q u e tzalfeathers,andcacaobeans w e reusedtobarterforgoodsof e q u a lvalue:turkeys,quail,rabbits, a n ddeer;ducksandotherwater b irds;maguey(cactus)syrup,and h o n e y.Cacaobeanswerealso u sedbytheAztecstomakea s p e c i a lchocolatedrink,which o n lynoblescouldafford.Until t h earrivaloftheSpanishin1519, c h o c o latewasunknownbeyond t h eAmericas.DiscussionQuestions •Asaclass,generatealistof thingsyouknowaboutfleas. L o o kcarefullyatthesculpture. W h a totherinformationabout fleascanyoulearnfromcareful o b servation? •Whymightsomeonefocuson s o m e thingastinyasafleaand c reateasculptureofitmagnified h u n d redsoftimes?Whymight thisthemehavebeenimportant toAztecartists?Whatanimals a reimportantincontemporary s o c i e ty?Whatartifactsmight laterexplorersfindfromthe21st c e n turythatincludereferences toanimals? 27
F u r therExplorations •Thissculptedflea,ona m o n u mentalscale,reflectsthe s k illofAztecstonecarversand t h e irabilitytocaptureminute d e tailsofinsectanatomyusing o n lystonetools.Bothartists a n dscientistslearnaboutthe n a turalworldthroughclose o b servation.Selectasmall, c o mplexnaturalobject.Adead i n s e c tisbestforthisexercise, b u tasmallflowerorseedcan a lsoserveasamodel.Closely o b serveyoursubject,usinga m a g n ifyingglassifyouhave o n e .Thenmakeadetailed d rawingonapieceofpaperthat i satleast9x12inches(largeris b e tter).Yourdrawingshouldfill t h eentirepage.Onceyouare d o n e ,makealistofthethings y o ulearnedaboutyoursubject b ydrawingit.•Studentscanexperiencethe p r o c e ssofcarvingbyusing asoftmateriallikeabarofsoap o rapotato.Abutterknife,plastic o rwoodenclaytools,and toothpickscanbeusedas i m p l e m e n t s .Choosesimpleforms s u c hasvegetablesandfruitsto m o d e l .TheAztecscreated e x c e l l e n texamplesintheform o fpumpkins,squashes,andcacti c a r vedfromstone.Thisproject i sbestdoneoutdoorsunder a d u l tsupervision. •Aztecgodssuchas Q u e tzalcoatl,the"feathered s e rpent,"frequentlytakea h y b ridform,inhiscaseasnake- b i r d ,combiningthefeaturesor q u a l i t i e softwoanimalsto e m p h a sizeaspectsofthedeity"s m ythicalorsupernatural p o w e r s.Whattwoanimals w o u l dyoucombinetocreate asupernaturalbeing?Sketch y o u rcreationandwritea d e s c riptionofthequalitiesthat thisnewcreaturewouldpossess. 6 B yexaminingAztecsculptures d e p ictingthehumanform,we s e eavividandimmediately r e c o g n i zableportraitofdailylife i nathrivingmetropolis.Instone a n dclaysculptorshavedepicted a nurbanepeopleinanascendant s o c i e tyinavarietyofposes: s t a n d ing,seated,kneeling, c rouching,orwearingan e laborateheaddress.Someare s t ylizedsuchasfertilityfiguresor f iguresofwarriors;otherlikethe s t o n esculptureofahunchback ( c a .1500)aremorenaturalistic, s a v o r ingtheparticular. A ztecartistsrarely,ifever, c reatedrealisticportraitsof i n d ividuals,insteadtheyrelied o nastandardrepertoireoffigure t y p e sandposes:seatedmale f igure,kneelingwoman,standing n u d e .Sincetheprimaryfunction o fAztecartwastoconvey m e a n ing,theimagerywas c o n ventionalized.Standardized t y p e sofhumanfigures r e p r e s e n tedrulers,warriors, p riests,andakindofeverymanfor c o mmonerfigures.Deitieswere i d e n tifiedbytheirdressandotheraccoutrements.BecauseAztec sculpturewasstandardized,itis sometimesinterpretedasbeing rigid,expressionless,stylized, c o n formingtoasetartistic formulaandestablished"rules" o frepresentation.

Atthesametime,theAztecshad

a nextensiveandhighlyscientific u n d e rstandingofthehumanbody, a n dsomeAztecsculpturesare verynaturalistic,displaying w rinkledforeheads,hunched b a c ks,andgap-toothedgrimaces a sevidencethatAztecartists c a refullyobservedtheirsubjects.

Aztecartistsdidrepresentthe

h u m a nforminawidevarietyof m e d i aandinasurprisingrange o fstyles.Amongthemostcommon representationsinthisexhibition a rethree-dimensionalsculptures o fthehumanforminstoneand c l a y .Thesesculpturesintheround representcommoners,warriors, g o d s,andgoddesses.

PeoplesandSocietiesoftheAztecWorld

2 9 1 3 H u n c h b a c k A z t e c , c a .1500 S t o n e ,33x17x12cm M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity10-97 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías

FortheAztecs,thehumanbody

a n dspiritwereintimatelylinked t othenaturalandsupernatural w o rldaroundthem,sothestate o ftheirownbeingcouldhave adirectimpactontheir s u r roundings.Theaim,inall a spectsofAzteclife,wasto m a intainnaturalharmony.

Abalancedbodyandlifeultimately

l e dtoabalancedsocietyand u n iverse.Thereforemoderation w a sadvisedineverythingand e xcessesavoidedforfearof u p settingthecosmicequilibrium.HUNCHBACK T h i soldstonehunchbackwithhis b o n yribcageandshortlimbsisa p a rticularlygoodexampleofthe h o n e standoftenhumorousrealism forwhichAztecartistsaretoday a d m i red.Hewearsaloinclothand sportsthehairstylecharacteristic o fwarriors,withalockofhairtied w i thcottontasselsontheright sideofhishead. 3 0

DiscussionQuestions

•Whatismeantbythewords s tylizedandnaturalistic?Are thereaspectsofthisworkthat s e e mstylized?Whatarethey? W h ichaspectsseemmore n a turalistic?Explain. •Comparethishumanfigurewith s c u lpturalimagesofAztecgods includedinthisguide.Howdo theydiffer?Whataresome r e a sonsthattheymightbeso d ifferentinappearance?FurtherExplorations •Lookthroughamagazineor n e w spaperandfindexamples o fbothnaturalisticandstylized i m a g e s .Discusswhatattributes y o uconsideredinputtingthem ineachcategory. •Chooseasinglesubject.Itcan b eaperson,butitcanalsobe a n yothernaturalform,aflower, fruit,leaf,oranimal.Createtwo w o r ksbasedonthissubject, o n estylizedandtheother n a turalistic.Theworkcanbe three-dimensionaloritcanbe adrawing.Whichapproachdid y o uprefer?Why? 3 1 401
P e n d e n tintheshapeof awarrior A z t e c , a f t e r1325 C a s tgold-silver-copperalloy, 1 1 .

2x6.1cm

T h eClevelandMuseumofArt, L e o n a r dC.Hanna,Jr.Fund 1 9 8 4 . 3 7 P h o t o©TheCleveland M u s e u mofArt 7 L i kemanycivilizations,Aztec s o c i e tywashierarchicaland aperson"ssocialposition,and t h e r e foreone"swayoflife,was l a r g e lydeterminedbybirthright. C o mmonersworkedasfarmers, f ishermen,orcraftsmen.Noblemen s e r v e dasgovernmentofficials, s c r ibes,andteachers.Although t h eclassstructurewasreasonably r i g id,somesocialmobilitywas p o ssiblethroughentryintothe p riesthood,achievementin w a r fare,orsuccessintrade.The A ztecruler,however,hadtohave b e e nbornintotherightfamily. A stheonlyfigureallowedtowear t h epreciouscolorturquoise,he l ivedinasumptuouspalacewith s p e c t a c u l a rgardens,abanqueting h a ll,alargezoo,andgoldcutlery. A ttendedbyanabundanceof b o d yguardsandbeautifulwomen ( whohadtoapproachhimwith d o wncasteyesandbarefeet),the r u l e rpossessedanalmostgodlike s t a tus.Theruleratthetimeofthe S p a n ishinvasionwastheninth A ztecemperor,MotecuhzomaII, w h ocouldtracehisancestryback t othefirstruler,Acamapichtli. T omaintainhisluxuriouslifestyle,thegreatMotecuhzomademanded o n e -thirdofeverythinghispeople p roducedintaxes.Healso d e m a n d e dregularpayments, knownastribute,fromthesubjects o fconqueredprovinces.

Attheoppositeendofthesocial

h i e rarchywerepeasantfarmers, l a n d l e sscommoners,andslaves. T h e yhadfewrightsorluxuries a n dspenttheirlivesgrowingcrops forfoodandtribute.Aprivileged u p p e rclasswasformedbynobles a n dpriests,bothofwhomplayed a nimportantroleingovernment a n dlawmaking.Thehigherclasses w e redistinguishedbytheirfine d e c o ratedtextilesandsandals, w h i c hwereimportantsymbols o frank.Theylivedinpalatial c o m p l e xesandenjoyedobjectsof thefinestquality.Onlynobleswere a l l o w e dtowearclothesmadeof c o tton,andtheyfrequentlyadorned themselveswithintricate o rnaments-pendants,lipplugs, a n dearspools.Commonerswore c l o theswovenfromthemuch c o a rserfiberofthemagueyplant.

Belowthenobleswerethe

m e rchantsandskilledcraftsmen.

NobleLifeandEveryday

Life 33

Itwastothismiddleclassthat

p rofessionalwarriorsbelonged.

Youngboyswouldbeeducatedat

h o mebytheirparentsuntiltheage o f15,atwhichpointtheywould e itherbetrainedinwarfareorsent forpriestlyinstructioninwriting, p h ilosophy,andastronomy.(Girls wereeducatedathomeuntil15as well,butthenmarried.)Although a lreadyrespectedmembersof s o c iety,warriorscouldimprove theirrankbycapturinganever- g reaternumberofvictims,and wererewardedwithincreasingly impressivecostumesandprecious tributeitems. A lthoughwetendtothinkofgold a sthemostpreciousofmaterials, a sdidtheSpanishconquistadors, theAztecsdidnot.Theyworked thegoldintoexquisitepiecesof jewelry,butreferredtoitasthe e x c rementofthegods.Perhaps s u rprisinglytous,themost v e n e ratedmaterialwasfeathers. B rightlycoloredplumeswere g a thered,oftenfromfarmedbirds, a n dsenttoTenochtitlanastax p a y mentortribute.Theywere fashionedintoobjectsofgreatbeauty,suchasfans,shields,and h e a d d resses.Featherworkswere i n signiaofwealthandpower,and a nimportantelementoftheritual o u tfitofwarriors.Mosaicsmade o fshell,turquoise,andother stoneswerealsohighlyprized. 3 4 35
D iscussionQuestions •Thisfigurerepresentsawarrior whoholdsaserpent-headed s p e a r-throwerinonehandand ashield,darts,andbannerin theother.Expertsbelievethat h erepresentssomeoneofelite s tatus.Howcanyoutellthatthis warriorispartofarespected g r o u pwithinhissociety? •Stonefigures,claypots,and jadeornamentsaresomeof theobjectsthatpreserveour k n o wledgeofAzteccivilization. W h a tobjectsorimageswould y o uselecttorepresentlife today?Whydotheseobjects s e rveasavalidrepresentation o fcontemporarysociety? •Althoughonlynobleshad o b jectsmadefromprecious metalsandstones,allAztec h o meshadsmallshrinestothe g o d sthatmighthelptoprotect thefamily.Doyouhavereligious o b jectsinyourhome?Describe whattheyare,wheretheyare p laced,andhowtheyareused.FurtherExplorations •WithinAztecsocietyaperson"s statusandsocialclasswere c l e a rlydelineated.Lookthrough m a g a z i n esandnewspapersfor i n d i c a tionsofhowpeoplefrom variouslevelsofcontemporary societyaredepicted.Cutout yourexamplesandhaveaclass d i scussionaboutcurrent i n d i c a torsofstatus.Whatare c o n temporary"statussymbols"? •Readoverthesectionabove a n dwriteaparallelessay a b o u tsocialclassandstatus i ncontemporarysociety. 311
D e a dwarriorbrazier A z t e c ,ca.1500 F i r e dclayandpaint, 9

1x76x57.5cm

M u s e oNacionaldel V i r r e i n a t o ,INAH, T e p o t z o t l á n10-133646 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 8 T h eAztecshadhundredsof d ifferentgodsandgoddesses- o n eforeveryaspectoftheirlives. T h evariousdeitieswerebelieved t oexertimmensepowerand i n fluenceovereverythingpeople d idand,asaresult,were w o r shippeddevoutlybyalllevels o fsociety,bothatdomesticshrines a n dalsoinelaboratepublicrituals. T h e seceremonies,ledbypriests w h ooften"became"godsduring t h eceremony,werehighly t h e a tricalanddramaticaffairs, i n tegratingfestivedancingin f a n tasticcostumeswithbloody h u mansacrifice,whichwas t h o u g h ttobenecessaryto c o n tinueandkeepinbalance t h ecycleoflifeanddeath. U n d e r lyingAztecreligiousbeliefs w a stheLegendoftheSuns,the e xplanationoftheoriginofthe u n iverse.Accordingtolegend,the u n iversehadbeencreatedand d e stroyedfourprevioustimes,and e a c hcreationformedanagecalled a"sun."Thefifthepochbeganin d a rkness.Thegodsgatheredat T e o tihuacan,andtwoofthem s a c r ificedthemselvesbyjumpingintoafireandrisingasthesunand themoon.Theremaininggodsthen s a c rificedthemselves,theirblood s e ttingthesunandmooninmotion. F romthenon,thedailymovement o fthesun,andthereforethe c o n tinuationoflifeitself,depended o nthenourishmentofthegods w i t hhumanblood. A l thoughAztecdeitiescanbe b r o a d l ydividedintomaleand female,thoseoflifeanddeath,and thoseofcreationanddestruction, theywerefarmorecomplexthan b e i n geitherpurelygoodorevil. M a n yweredualinnature, i n c o r p o ratingaparticularquality, g e n d e rorrole,withitsopposite. T h i sduality(doublenature) r e flectedoneofthedominant p r i n c i p l e sofAztecreligionand thought:thatthecosmoswas o r g a n i z e dintobinaryopposites, s u c hasnightandday,fireand w a t e r,coldandheat.

Inmanyways,Aztecgodsand

g o d d e s seswerejustlikeordinary m e nandwomen.Theyeachhad theirownpersonalityandwell- d e finedrole.Humansimpersonated G odsandRituals 3 7 thegodsatreligiousceremonies, b e c o mingthemforthattime. B e c ausethegodscouldtransform t h e mselvesintoearthlyforms, a lmosteverythingwasconsidered d ivine,fromthelowliestinsectto t h elargestmountain.Amongthe A ztecgodsandgoddesseswas asupremedeitycalledOmeteotl ( " twogod"),who,asbothfemale a n dmale,wastheembodimentof t h eAztecideaofdualityandwas r e s p onsibleforcreatingboth h u mansandgods. T h eAztecshadnoconceptof h e a venandhellasplacesof r e wardandpunishment.Instead, t h e yenvisionedthecosmosas d ividedintolayers,bothaboveand b e lowtheearth,eachofwhich r e c e i vedpeoplewhohaddieda p a rticulardeath.Ifyouhaddied b ydrowningorbeenstruckby l ightning,forexample,youended u ponthecelestial(heavenly) p lanegovernedbyTlaloc,therain g o d .Theninelevelsbeneaththe e a rth,collectivelyknownas M ictlan(theunderworld),were l e s swelcomingandwerewhere t h emajorityofAztecswentwhentheydied.Althoughitwasn"tquite a sgrimastheChristianconcept o fhell,thepeoplebanishedhere h a dtobravesuchhazardsas c l a shingmountainsandflying k n i vesmadefromobsidian,ablack v o l c a n i cglassthatissohardand s h a rpthattheAztecsuseditto m a keswords.

InAztecart,deitiescanbe

i d e n t i fiedthroughastandardset o faccoutrements,includingdress, h e a d w e a r ,facemarkings,jewelry, o rornamentation,andother a c c e s soriessuchasweapons. T e z c a t l i p o c a ,forexample,an a n c i e n tMexicansorcererand thegodofnightanddestiny,is g e n e r a l l ydepictedwithablack b a n dacrosshisnoseandface a n dawitheredfootthatendsin amirrormadeofobsidian. T e z c a t l i p o c a " snameactually m e a n s"smokingmirror"and i twassaidthat,withthis i n strument,hecouldseeand c o n trolwhatwashappening throughouttheuniverse. 3 8 39
D E

IFIEDWARRIORBRAZIER

T h isceremonialbrazier,or f irepot,wasdiscoveredduring t h econstructionoftheMetro i nMexicoCity,nearwherethe T e mploMayorhadpreviously s t o o d .Itdepictsthefiercely e xpressiveformofawarrior c rossingthethresholdofdeath, e itherkilledinbattleorsacrificed t othegods.Suchadeathwas h o n o rableandthesoulsofdead w a r riorswenttotheirown c e lestialplane,wheretheywere t h o u g h ttoaccompanythesunon i tsdailypathacrossthesky.The f igurewearsanenormouseagle h e lmetwithanopenbeak, i d e n tifiedwitheaglewarriors,one o fthemostdistinguishedmilitary o rdersthatcouldbeawardedtoa b raveAztecfighter.Theblack,red, a n dyellowdecorationandfacial p a intidentifyhimasapatronof y o u t h fulenergyandmilitary v i c tory,whilethe"haloofnine f e a thers"aroundtheupperpartof h isfaceevokestheplanesofthe u n d erworld.LikemanyotherAztec s c u l p tures(andmanybuildings), t h isbrazierwouldhavebeenlit d u ringreligiousceremonies.DiscussionQuestions •Whichcharacteristicsofthis sculptureseemwarrior-like?

Howwouldyoudepictabrave

w a rriorwhohadbeenkilledin abattle? •Comparethisfigurewiththe o thereaglewarriorpictured i nthisguide.Inwhatwaysdo p e o p l etodayhonorthememory o fthosewhohavebeenkilled i nwar?

FurtherExplorations

•Theexhibitioncontainsmany e xamplesofvesselsdecorated w i thimagesofgodsandpeople. W i thself-hardeningclaycreate avesseladornedwitha p e rsonage.Whendry,paintcan b eapplied.Rememberthatself- h a rdeningclaycanneverbe u sedasacontainerforfood. 335
X i u h m o l p i l l i(1Death) A z t e c , c a .1500 S t o n e , l .61cm,diam.26cm, M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity10-220917 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 9 A ztecsweregreatlyconcerned w iththepassageoftimeand d e visedsophisticatedcalendars a n delaboratecountingsystems t h a tregulatedtheirreligious, e c o n o mic,political,andsocial l ives.Twointerrelatedcalendars w e r eusedtomeasuretime. T h e365-daysolaroryearly c a lendarwascloselylinkedto t h eseasonsandtoagricultural a c tivitiessuchasharvesting. I twasmadeupof18"months"of 2

0days(360).Theremainingfive

d a ysweretackedontotheendof e a c hyearandconsideredvery u n lucky.Each'month"was d e d icatedtoaparticulardeity a n dwasdistinguishedbya d ifferentfeast.Althoughitalso r e g u l a tedhumanactivities,the 2 6 0 -dayritualcalendarwasmore r e l igiousinnature,particularly c o n c e rnedwithfateanddestiny. T h iscalendarconsistedoftwo w h e e ls,orrounds.Oneroundhad 1

3numberedpositions.Theother

h a d20positions,eachwitha n a medsign,suchasrabbit,house, o rcrocodile.Theinterlocking o fthesetworoundsproduced anumber-nameforeachday,suchas"1Rabbi,""2Water,"or "3Jaguar,"eachofwhichwas a ssociatedwithadifferentfate.

Aztecpeoplewerenamedafterthe

d a yoftheritualcalendaronwhich theywereborn.Itwasthoughtthat thefateofthisdaywouldaffect theirpersonaldestiny. W h e nthevariousnumbers a n dsignsofthesetwodifferent c a l e n d a rswereintegrated, theyproducedacombination thatwouldoccuronceevery

52yearsandmightbeconsidered

e q u i valenttoourcentury.Thiswas atimeofterrifyinguncertaintyfor theAztecs.Itwasmarkedwith aNewFireCeremony.Allfires w e reextinguishedandhousehold p o tssmashed,readyforrenewal. P riestswaitedontheoutskirts o fTenochtitlan.Atmidnightthey l i tanewfireinthechestcavity o facaptivewarrior,anditsflame w a sdistributedtotemplesand e ventuallytohouseholds.This c e remonyepitomizedtheconcept thatoutofhumansacrificecame l i fe,asacredaspectoftheduality o fdeathandrebirth. M a nuscriptsandCalendars 41
42
X

IUHMOLPILLI

T h exiuhmolpilli,meaning"year b u n d le,"isastonemonument c reatedtocommemorateaNew F i reCeremony.Asitsname s u g g e s ts,itrepresentsabundle o f52reeds,tiedwithropeand c o veredwithasymbolofthefinal y e a r .Duringtheceremony,52of t h e s ebundleswereburned. T h eAztecsbelievedthattheworld h a dalreadybeencreatedand d e stroyedfourtimesbefore,and t h a ttheirFifthWorldwasalso d o o med.Itwasthoughtthatthis r itualofrenewalwouldpreventthe d e structionoftheworldafifth t ime.ThelastNewFireCeremony b e forethearrivaloftheSpanish t o o kplacein1507.DiscussionQuestions •Whenthemillenniumyear2000 wasapproaching,therewere s p e c u l a tionsaboutpossible c a tastrophes,aswellasmajor c e l e b rations.Researchboth a spectsofthecommemoration o ftherecentmillennium.How d i dcontemporaryobservances p a rallelordifferfromAztec traditions? •Inmanywaysthedescription o fAztecbeliefsaboutthefate o fpeoplebeingdetermined b ythecalendarseemssimilar toastrology.Doyoubelieve thatthemonth,day,andtime whenapersonisbornaffects theirfate?Doyouthinkthere a reluckyandunluckydays? E xplainyouranswer. •Thisstonemonument c o m m e m o ratedaspecial c e remonialeventinthelivesof theAztecs.Whatspecialevents h a veoccurredduringyour lifetime?Howhavetheybeen c o m m e m o rated? 43
F u rtherExplorations •Theendofeach52-yearAztec " c e n tury"wasconsidereda p e r iodofterribledangerwhen t h eworldcouldcometoanend. N oonewassureifthesun w o u ldriseagain.Althoughtoday w emayviewsuchbeliefsas i rrational,superstitioncontinues t opervade,evenincontemporary c u l ture.Withyourclass, b r a instormalistofsuperstitions. S o m eexamplesinclude, " F ridaythethirteenth,"and " thecurseoftheBambino." R e s e a r c handreportonthe h i storybehindtheseideasand w h ytheycontinue. 526
L i f e - D e a t hfigure(Apotheosis) H u a x t e c , c a .900-1250 S t o n e , 1 5

8x67x22.9cm

B r o o k l y nMuseumofArt, H e n r yL.BattermanFundand t h eFrankShermanBenson F u n d ,37.2897PA P h o t o©BrooklynMuseum o fArt 1 0 F r o mthe14ththrough16th c e n turiesAztecsdominated c e n tralandsouthernMexico a n destablishedanelaborate a n dwide-rangingempire. A stheAztecsgrewinnumber, t h e ydevelopedsuperiormilitary a n dcivilorganizations. T h eAztecsformedmilitary a llianceswithothergroups, c reatinganempirethatextended f r o mcentralMexicotothe G u a temalanborder.Bytheend o fthereignofMotecuhzomaIIin 1 5 2

0,38tributaryprovinceshad

b e e nestablished;however,some o fthetribesatthefringesofthe A ztecempireremainedfiercely i n d e p e n d e n t. A ztecrulersapproachedwar s o m e whatdifferentlythanwedo t o d a y.Therewerevariedreasons f o rwarfare.Aninsult,atributethat h a dnotbeenpaidoranattackon A ztectraderscouldtriggera m ilitaryresponse.TheAztecs d idnotlaunchsurpriseattacks, n o rdidtheyfightduringcertain s e a s o n soratnight.Declarations o fwarbeganbysendingambassadorstothecitythey p l a n n e dtoattack.Theywouldask thecityleaderstobecomeallies b ypayingtribute,tradingwith theAztecs,andputtingastatue o ftheirgodHuitzilopochtliintheir temple.Theyhadtwentydaysto d e c i d ewhethertheywould c o m p l y .Ifthecityrefused,more a m b a ssadorsarrived.Thistime thetalkwastougher,lessabout theadvantagesofjoiningthe

Aztecsandmoreaboutthe

d e structionanddeath,which c a m etoanycitythatdidnot submit.Toshowhowconfident theywereabouttheoutcomeof a n yfuturewar,theAztecsgave theenemychiefweapons,and m o rewarnings.Ifthisdidnot w o rk,athirdembassyarrived twentydayslater.Politetalkwas replacedbybloodcurdlingthreats a b o u twhatwouldhappenafter thecitylostthewar.Thisincluded d e structionofthecity"stemple, e n slavementofpopulation,and apromisethatcripplingtribute w o u l dbedemandedforyearsto c o m e .Ifthecitystillrefusedto j o i ntheAztecs,thewarbegan. T h roughallofthesenegotiations, C ulturesSubjugatedBytheAztecs 4 5 theAztecshadtimetogain informationandplanhowtobest a ttackthecity.Priestsdecidedon theluckiestdaytostartthebattle, s o ldierspreparedforwar,thearmy s e tout,andthebattlesbegan. U s u allytheAztecswonquickly. T h e ytookasmanyprisonersas p o s sibleforsacrifice,destroyed thelocaltemplesanddecidedon thetributetobepaid.Thenthey madethelocalpeopleworship H u itzilopochtliandrespectthe A z tecemperor.Tributewaspaid regularly,orelseanotherbattle wouldoccur. D iscussionQuestions •HowdoAztecwartacticsand s t rategiesdifferfromthose u sedtoday?Arethereparts t h a tseemeffective?Ineffective?

Ifyouwerecounselingthe

A ztecsonmilitarystrategy,what s u g g e s tionswouldyoumake? •Ifyouwerepartofaneighboring g roupwhattacticswould y o usuggesttoavoidbeing c o n q u e red?LIFE-DEATHFIGURE T h i sLife-Deathfigurewas c r e a tedbytheHuaxtec,apeople w h oweredefeatedbytheAztec a r m i e saround1450andhenceforth p a i dtributetotheAztecempire.

Itisanexcellentembodimentof

aconceptthatranthrough M e soamericancultures;the c o n c e p tofduality.Thislife-size s c u l p turerepresentsayouthful m a l ewearingornamentsanda c l o t hknottedaroundhiswaist,but w h e nweexaminetheotherside o fthisfigurewefindaskeletal figurewithitsribcageandinternal o r g a n sexposed. T h eHuaxteclanguageisstill s p o keninMexicotoday,especially i nruralareas,andthepeople r e taincharacteristictraditions i ntheirmusicanddance.

ItisestimatedthattheHuaxtec

p o p u l a t i o ninMexiconumbers a p p r o ximately80,000people. 4 6 47
D iscussionQuestions •Dividetheclassintotwogroups. E a c hgroupshouldcomposea l istofwordsthatdescribeone s i d eofthesculpture.When c o mplete,postbothlists.Are t h e r ewordsineachlistthatcan b ecombinedtodemonstratethe c o n c e p tofduality?Arethere o thercombinationsthatsuggest o therqualitiesinthissculpture? •Aresomedualitiesstillpartof o u rcontemporarylife?Doyou f e e lthisconceptisstill i mportantorhasitbeenreplaced b yotherideas.Explain.FurtherExplorations •Althoughweseethefrontand b a c kofthisworkinthe p h o tograph,makeadrawing thatshowshowitmightlook fromtheside-inprofile.Ifyou a revisitingthemuseumduring theexhibition,bringthedrawing w i thyou,sothatyoucan c o m p a reyourconceptionwith yourobservationsinthegallery. •Considertheconceptofduality a n dcreateadrawing,poem, e ssay,sculpture,orother p e rsonalexpressionofthis p e rvasivetheme. 11 T othewest,thePurepechapeople, c a lledTarascanbytheSpanish, f lourishedfrom1100to1530. T h ecenteroftheTarascan E mpirewastheircapitalcityof T z intzuntzan.Fromthisreligious a n dadministrativecenter,the T a rascanswagedwaragainst t h e irenemies,theAztecs. P roductssuchashoney,cotton, f e a thers,salt,gold,andcopper w e r ehighlyprizedbythe T a rascans.Neighboringregions t h a tpossessedthesecommodities q u icklybecameaprimarytargetof t h e irmilitaryexpansion.When c o n q u e red,thepeoplesofthese r e g i o n swereexpectedtopay t r ibutesofmaterialgoodstothe T a rascanlord. T h eAztecsattemptedmorethan o n c etoconquertheTarascan l a n d s ,butneversucceeded.This l e fttheAztecswithamajorrivalon t h e irwesternborder.Incombat t h e yrepeatedlysufferedgrievous l o s sestotheTarascanarmies.For e xample,in1478therulingAztec l o r d ,Axayacatl,marchedagainst t h eTarascans.Hefoundhisarmyof24,000confrontedbyan o p p o singforceofmorethan40,000 T a rascanwarriors.Aferocious b a ttlewentonallday.Manyof theAztecwarriorswerebadly w o u n d e dbyarrows,stones, spears,andswordthrusts.The followingday,theAztecswere forcedtoretreat,havingsuffered thelossofmorethanhalfoftheir e l i tewarriors. T h earrivaloftheSpanishcaptain

HernánCortésandhismenonthe

e a stcoastofMexicoinApril1519 l e dtotheendofboththeAztec a n dtheTarascanEmpires. K n o w i n gthattheSpaniardswere o ntheirwaytotheAzteccapital o fTenochtitlan,theAztecssent e m i ssariestotheTarascanstoask forhelp.Insteadofproviding a ssistance,theysacrificedthe

Aztecmessengers.Tenochtitlanfell

i n1521afterabloodysiege. T h eTarascans"turncamein1522. T h elastTarascanking,Tangaxoan

II,offeredlittleresistance.Oncehe

submitted,alltheotherTarascan realmssurrenderedpeacefully.

Aftertheconquest,Spanish

m i ssionariesorganizedthe T h eTarascanEmpire 4 9 6 2 5 C h a c m o o l T a r a s c a n , c a .1250-1521 S t o n e , 8

4x150x48cm

M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity10-1609 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 50
T a r a scanEmpireintoaseriesof c raft-orientedvillages,andtoday t h eareaaboundswith c raftspeopleskilledinwood, c o p p e r,cloth,andclay. W h yisn"ttheTarascanempire b e tterknown?UnliketheAztecs, t h eTarascansleftnopersonal d o c u mentaryhistories.Withoutthe a ssistanceofSpanishmissionary- h istoriansdedicatedtowriting d o wntheirstory,muchoftheir h istorywaslost.However, a rchaeologicalexcavationsanda s i g n ificantbodyofpottery,copper, a n dstoneobjectsaffordsusa g limpseintothelivesofthisstrong a n dhighlydevelopedcivilization.DiscussionQuestion •Withnewtechnologiesthere a remanywaystopreserve h i story.Namesomeofthe institutionsandtechnologies thathelppreservehistory forfuturegenerations.Also c o n siderwaysthateventoday importanthistoriescanbelost o robliterated.

CHACMOOL

T h etermchacmoolreferstoa s t yleofsculpture,representing amalefigureinaspecificpose: s e a t e donthegroundwithits u p p e rbackraised,theheadis t u r n e dtoanearrightangle,the l e g saredrawnup,elbowsreston t h eground.Thereceptacleheldon t h estomachisthoughttobefor s a c r ificialofferings.Chacmool f igureshavebeenfoundattemples t h r o u g h o u tMesoamerica s u g g e s tingthatthissculptural f o r mwasimportanttoseveral c ivilizations,includingMayan, T o l tec,Aztec,andTarascan.DiscussionQuestion •ThestyleofthisTarascanfigure d i ffersfromthoseoftheAztecs. C h o o seanotherfigureinthis g u i d eandcompareandcontrast thestyleofthetwoworks. •Taketheposeofthechacmool figure.Describehowitfeelsto a ssumethispose.Whatareas o fyourbodyareintension?Even thoughyouarereclining,doyou feelrelaxed?Whatwordscan youfindtodescribeyour a ssociationswiththispose?

FurtherExplorations

•Althoughtheydisplayasimilar p o se,chacmoolfiguresindifferent styleshavebeenfoundinmany

Mesoamericancultures.Research

o therchacmoolfiguresand,using thatinformation,designonethat youthinkmightbediscoveredin futurearchaeologicalexcavations. 5 1 52
12 O nNovember8,1519,theAztec w o r ldchangedforeverwhena g roupofSpanishconquistadores, l e dbyHernánCortés,arrivedat T e n o c h titlantomeetMotecuhzoma I

I.TheninthAztecrulerhadknown

o ftheimpendingarrivalofwhite m e nfromtheeastforanumberof y e a r sandhadsentmessengers t otheGulfCoasttobringnews o fthesestrangers,whose a p p roachingshipsappearedto t h eAztecsashousesfloating o nthesea.Uponhisarrival, M o t e c u h z o mainvitedCortésto T e n o c h titlan,perhapsinthebelief t h a thewasQuetzalcoatl,theruler- p riestandgodwhohadbeen b a n ishedandwho,accordingto l e g e n d ,wouldreturnfromtheeast. C o rtésandMotecuhzomameton o n eofthecausewaysthatlinked T e n o c h titlantothemainland. H e r etheyexchangedwordsand g ifts.Treatedlikegods,theSpanish w e r ewelcomedinTenochtitlan, acitywhosebeautyand s o p h i sticationoverwhelmed t h e m.Theywereuncertainof M o t e c u h z o ma"sintentionshowever, a n d ,awarethattheywereoutnumbered,theysoonbetrayed theAztecrulerandtookhim h o stage.Inresponse,theAztecs a ttackedtheSpaniards,resulting i nawarinwhichbothsides sustainedheavycasualties.

Motecuhzomadiedduringthe

fighting,possiblykilledbyhisown p e o p l eastheythrewstonesatthe c o n q u i stadores.Indesperation, theSpanishfinallyfledthecityby m o o n l i g h tonlateJune1520,an o c c a sionthathascometobe knownastheNocheTriste(Sad N i g h t)bytheSpanish. T h efollowingyeara900-strong S p a n i sharmyreturned,beginning anearly3-month-longsiege thatclaimedmanyAzteclives throughintensefighting,starvation, a n ddisease.Afterfierce resistance,theAzteccapital T e n o c h titlanfinallyfelltoCortés o nAugust13,1521. T h eSpanishconquestcanbe a ttributedtoseveralfactors,among themweretheirsuperiorweapons, w h i c hincludedfirearmsandsteel swords,andtheirmilitarytactics, w h i c h ,unlikeAztecwarfare, T h eTwilightoftheEmpire 5 3 5 9 8 L i e n z odeQuetzpalan C o l o n i a l - P u e b l a , l a t e16thcentury C o t t o nandpigments, 1 5

4x183x53cm

F u n d a c i ó nCulturalTelevisa, M e x i c oCityREG21PJ403 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías focusedonactuallykillingthe e n e my(ratherthancapturingthem a livetobesacrificedtothegods l a ter).Cortésalsoexploited u n d e rlyingtensionsbetween T e n o c h titlanandothercities. H ewashelpedinhisnegotiations w iththeAztecsbyaninterpreter, a nindigenouswoman,Malintzin, w h o mtheSpaniardsrenamed M a rinaandisknowntodayin M e x icoasLaMalinche. A smightbeexpectedconsidering t h econvictionwithwhichtheyhad p racticedtheirownreligion p reviously,theAztecs"conversion t oChristianitywasaslowand g radualprocess.Forawhile,the t woreligionsexistedsomewhat u n e a silytogetherastheAztecs w e reforcedtorelinquishtheir m a n ygodsandgoddessesinfavor o fonesupremedeity.Despitethe e ventualsuccessoftheChristian m ission,someAztecidolswere s t illbeingworshippedmorethan 3 0

0yearslater.FurtherExplorations

•ThemeetingbetweenCortés a n dMotecuhzomaIImarked theencounterbetweentwo d i fferentcivilizationswhoknew littleofeachother.Dividethe c l a ssinhalf:onehalfwill r e p resenthowMotecuhzomaII a n dhisarmiessawtheinvaders; therestshouldimagine themselvesastheSpanish e xpedition.Writescriptsthat d e m o n stratedisparatepoints o fview,andthenstagea meetingenvisioningwhattook p l a c einNovember1519,along thecausewayleadingtothe A z teccapitol. 5 4

CODICES

M u c hofwhatweknowaboutthe A ztecscomesfromtheirbeautiful, h a n d -paintedmanuscripts,or c o d ices(singular:codex). I ntheircodices,Aztecpainter- s c r ibesusedaformofpicture w r iting,whichresembledthe a n c ientEgyptians"hieroglyphics o rthemodern-daycomic.This " w riting"includedpictograms, p h o n e ticsigns,religiousemblems, a n devenmathematicalsymbols. D u r ingtheinitialyearsofSpanish r u l e ,manycodiceswere d e stroyed,especiallythosethat d o c u mentedAztecrituals.Today o n lyafewpre-Hispanicpainted b o o ksfromMexicosurvive. T h iscodex,knownastheLienzoof Q u e tzpalan,wasproducedaspart o falarge-scalegeographicsurvey o fMexicoorderedbytheSpanish g o vernmentinthe1570s.DiscussionQuestions •Examinethepagefromthe c o d e x,LienzoofQuetzpalan.

Howmanysymbols(glyphs)can

youdecipher?Whichsymbols a redifficulttoequatewith ameaning?Trytoconstruct anarrativethatdescribeswhat i sbeingdepicted.

FurtherExplorations

•Topracticecommunicatingusing g l yphs,tryagameofPictionary® (picturecharades).Dividethe c l a ssinhalf.Eachteamshould w riteasetofsecretwordsthat theotherteamwilltrytoguess.

Movie,play,andsongtitlesare

somepossiblecategories.

Aplayertriestodrawsymbols

thatwillgettheirteamtoguess c o rrectly.Notalkingorwritten w o rdsallowed. •Manycodicesdocument h i storicalinformationandevents. C h o o seasubjectandcreate asetofgraphicsymbols(glyphs) toillustrateyourcodex. 5 5 56
C A C A

OChocolate.

C A

LPULLI(cal-PUL-li)Aform

o fkin-basedcommunalliving p racticedinTenochtitlan. C A U S E

WAYSRaisedroadsor

p a thwaysacrosswater. C H

INAMPAS(chi-NAM-pahs)

A ztecfloatinggardensmadefrom r e c laimedswampland. C O D E

XAnAztecbookofpicture

s y mbols.Thepluraliscodices. E

MPIREAgroupofcountriesor

s t a tes,ruledbyasingle g o vernmentoremperor. G L Y P

HApicturesymbolstanding

f o rawordoridea. H U

ITZILPOCHTLI(huit-zi-lo-

P O C H T -li)Sungodandgodofwar. M A

GUEY(MA-guey)Atypeof

c a c tusplantthatprovidedcloth a n dfoodfortheAztecs.MESOAMERICATermusedto d e s c ribethecentralregionof theAmericasinhabitedbynative c i vilizationsbeforethearrivalof theSpanish. M E X

ICAS(Mah-SHEE-kahs)

P e o p l eoftheAztecempire. M

ICTLANTECUHTLI(mict-lan-te-

C U

H-tli)LordofMictlan,the

u n d e r w o rld. M

OSAICAdesignmakefromsmall

p i e c e sofstoneorcoloredglass. M

OTECUHZOMAII(mo-te-cuh-ZO-

m a )TheninthAztecruleratthe timeoftheConquest. N

OBLEApersonofhighbirth,

s u c hasalord. N

AHUATL(NAH-hua-tl)

T h elanguagespokenbythe A z tecsandstillspokentodayby s o m egroupsofCentralHighland M e xico.Avocado(aguacatl)and tomato(tomatl)areNahuatlwords.

Vocabulary

57
N A T

URALISTICThesuggestion,

inaworkofart,ofthedirect o b s e rvationofasceneorfigure.

OBSIDIANHardvolcanicglass

thattheAztecsusedforweapon b lades. P R E C

OLUMBIANTheperiod

o ftimebeforethearrivalof C h r istopherColumbustothe N e wWorldin1492.

QUETZALCOATL(quet-zal-CO-a-tl)

"

Featheredserpent,"important

p a n -

Mesoamericandeity.

S

ACRIFICETokillananimalor

p e r sonasanofferingtothegods. S C R

IBEApersonwhowrites

d o c u mentsandbooksbyhand. S T Y L

IZEDThesimplificationor

g e n e r a lizationofformsfound innature. T E M P

LOMAYOR(TEM-plomay-

OR)TheGreatTempleof

T e n o c h titlan.TENOCHTITLAN(Te-noch-TIT-lan) T h ecapitalcityoftheAztec e m p i re. T

LALOC(TLA-loc)Godofrain.

T R

IBUTEAtypeoftaxpaidinfood

a n dothergoods.

UNDERWORLDTheplacewhere

theAztecsbelievedpeoplewent w h e ntheydied. X

IPETOTEC(Shee-peTOH-tec)

Godofrenewalandrebirth.

58

Intheinterestofsimplifyingthe

textofthisguide,footnoteshave b e e neliminated.Grateful a c k n o wledgmentismadetothe a u thorsofthefollowingworksfor theircontributionstothecontent o fthisguide.

NinaMiall.Aztecs:AnIntroduction

totheExhibition.London:Royal A c a d e myofArts,2002. E d u a r d oMatosMoctezumaand F e lipeSolís.Aztecs.NewYork: H a rryN.Abrams,Inc.,2002. R ichardF.Townsend.TheAztecs. L o n d o n :ThamesandHudson,2000.ForAdults G o rdonBrotherston.Painted B o o ksfromMexico.London: B ritishMuseumPress,1995. D a vídCarrasco.DailyLifeofthe A z tecs:PeopleoftheSunand E a rth.Westport,Conn.:Greenwood P ress,1998. M i c h a e lD.Coe.Mexico:Fromthe O l m e c stotheAztecs.NewYork: T h a m e sandHudson,2002. M i g u e lLeón-Portilla.Aztec T h o u g h tandCulture.Translated b yJackEmoryDavis.Norman: U n i versityofOklahomaPress, 1 990.
E d u a rdoMatosMoctezuma. T h eGreatTempleoftheAztecs: T reasuresofTenochtitlan.London: T h a m e sandHudson,1994. M a ryEllenMiller.TheArtof M e soamericafromOlmecto A z tec.London:Thamesand H u d son,1996.

BibliographyandSuggestedResources

59
M a ryEllenMillerandKarlTaube.

AnIllustratedDictionaryofthe

GodsandSymbolsofAncient

M e xicoandtheMaya.London: T h a mesandHudson,1997. E s therPasztory.AztecArt. N e wYork:HarryN.Abrams,Inc., 1 998.
P a triciaRieffAnawaltandFrances F .Berdan.TheEssentialCodex M e n d o z a.Berkeley:Universityof C a liforniaPress,1997. F e lipeSolís.TheAztecEmpire. N e wYork:GuggenheimMuseum a n dMexicoCity:Landucci E d itores,2004. T h e lmaD.SullivanandT.J.Knab.

AScatteringofJades:Stories,

P o e msandPrayersoftheAztecs. N e wYork:Simon& S c h u s ter/Touchstone,1994.ForChildren E l i z a b e thBaquedano.Aztec,

Inca&Maya.London:Dorling

K i n d e rsley,1993. P e terHicks.TheAztecs.NewYork: T h o m sonLearning,1993.

FionaMacdonald.HowWouldYou

S u rviveasanAztec?Danbury, C o n n . :FranklinWatts,1997. N e i lMorris.UncoveringHistory E verydayLifeofTheAztec,Incas, &Maya.Florence,Italy:McRae

BooksSrl,2003.

P h i l i pSteele.Aztec-News:The

GreatestNewspaperinCivilization.

C a m b ridge,Mass.:Candlewick P ress,1997. T i mWood.TheAztecs.NewYork: V i kingPenguin,1992. 60

Websites

h ttp://anthro.amnh.org D e p a rtmentofAnthropology,AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory www.famsi.org F o u n d a tionfortheAdvancementofMesoamericanStudies www.archaeology.org A rchaeologyMagazine,ArchaeologicalAssociationofAmerica h ttp://copan.bioz.unibas.ch/mesolinks.html h ttp://www.atlanticava.org/WebandCamSites/AztecsIncasMyans.htm P recolumbianArchaeologyRelatedLinks h ttp://library.thinkquest.org/27981/god.html h ttp://www.mexicolore.co.uk/azt_pron.htm P rovidesaudiopronunciationforselectedAztecgodsandNahuatlwords

Videos

InSearchofHistory:TheAztecEmpire

NewYork:A&ETelevisionNetworks,1997

C o lor,50min E mpiresoftheAmericas:AJourneyBackinTime

NewJersey:Kultur,2000

C o lor,50min 61
T h eSacklerCenterforArts E d u c a tionisaninteractive-media facilitydedicatedtoexploring themuseum"scollectionsand e x h ibitionsandmodernand c o n temporaryartingeneral. T h eSacklerCenterforArts E d u c a tionisagiftoftheMortimer

D.SacklerFamily.

E d u c a tionalactivitiesaremade p o s siblebyTheEdithandFrances M u lhallAchillesMemorialFund, T h eEngelbergFoundation,William R a n d o lphHearstFoundation,and T h ePeterJaySharpFoundation. P r o jectManagement S h a r o nVatsky,SeniorEducation M a n a g e r E d itedbyStephenHobanand E lizabethFranzen

DesignedbyJaniceLeeSpecialThanks

WearegratefultoNinaMiall,

P u b l i cProgramsManagerat theRoyalAcademyofArts,for g rantingpermissiontoadapt e d u c a tionalmaterialswritten fortheexhibitionAztecs.

Forcuratorialinsightsandreview:

MarionKocot,ProjectManager,

T h eAztecEmpire.

Foreducationalinsightsandreview:

K i mKanatani,GailEngelberg, D i rectorofEducation R e b e c c aHerz,EducationManager J e ssicaWright,EducationManager S a rahSelvidge,EducationIntern

Dr.GeorgeRappaport,Professor

E m e ritus,WagnerCollege

Creditsand

HonoraryTrusteesinPerpetuity

S o lomonR.Guggenheim J u s tinK.Thannhauser P e g g yGuggenheim H o n o raryChairman P e terLawson-Johnston C h a irman P e terB.Lewis

Vice-Presidents

W e n d yL-J.McNeil S tephenC.Swid J o h nS.Wadsworth,Jr. D irector T h o masKrens S e c r e tary E d wardF.Rover H o n o raryTrustee C laudePompidou T rusteesExOfficio D a v idGallagher D a k isJoannou D irectorEmeritus T h o masM.MesserTrustees J o nImanolAzua P e terM.Brant

MarySharpCronson

GailMayEngelberg

DanielFilipacchi

MartinD.Gruss

FrederickB.Henry

DavidH.Koch

T h o m a sKrens P e terLawson-Johnston P e terLawson-JohnstonII P e terB.Lewis

HowardLutnick

W i l l i a mL.Mack

WendyL-J.McNeil

E d w a rdH.Meyer V l a d i m i rO.Potanin

FrederickW.Reid

S tephenM.Ross

MortimerD.A.Sackler

DeniseSaul

T e rrySemel J a m e sB.Sherwood R a j aW.Sidawi S e ymourSlive J e n n i ferStockman S tephenC.Swid J o h nS.Wadsworth,Jr.

MarkR.Walter

J o h nWilmerding 6 2 T H

ESOLOMONR.GUGGENHEIM

F O U N D A T ION Chair

GailMayEngelberg

M e mbers E lizabethBader

AnnaDeveareSmith

L e sleyM.Friedman R e b e c c aGrafstein

AlanC.Greenberg

R o s lalindG.Jacobs M a u reenLee

WyntonMarsalis

W e n d yL-J.McNeil E lihuH.Modlin P a lomaPicasso S u z a n n ePlotch K a theA.Sackler

GabrielaSerna

VivianSerota

E lizabethR.Varet P e terYarrow 6 3 S

OLOMONR.GUGGENHEIM

E

DUCATIONCOMMITTEE2004