[PDF] The Planet Venus and Temple 22 at Copán

25589_5IND_09_Closs__Aveni__Crowley.pdf Michael P. Closs - Anthony F. Aveni - Bruce Crowley Th e Plane t Venu s an d Templ e 2 2 a t Copá n L a importanci a qu e tení a Venu s par a lo s antiguo s maya s e s bie n conocida . Si n embargo , ¿Qu é razone s básica s puede n aducirs e par a e l luga r destacad o qu e ocup a e n l a mitologí a maya ? Est e estudi o ofrec e un a respuest a parcial . Discut e l a orientació n d e Venu s e n l a arquitectur a maya , l a iconografí a de l Templ o 2 2 d e Copán , la s aparicione s d e Venu s po r l a inusitad a ventan a e n e l mur o occidenta l d e est e templo , l a mitologí a asociad a co n Venus , y lo s dato s ethnohistórico s concerniente s a l cicl o agrícol a d e lo s mayas . Usand o e l Templ o 2 2 com o nexo , e l present e trabaj o reún e e l materia l obtenid o d e esta s diversa s fuente s e n u n tod o cohesivo . A l procede r d e est e modo , hemo s revelad o tambié n un o d e lo s papele s cosmo - lógico-mítico s má s significativo s d e Venu s e n e l mund o maya . VENU S AN D TH E MAY A Of all the objects in the heavens none was paid more attention by the May a tha n th e plane t Venus . Th e Venu s tabl e i n th e Dresde n Code x re - veal s tha t thes e peopl e kep t clos e watc h o n th e planet , tracin g it s heliaca l ris e t o a n accurac y o f on e hou r i n 40
0 year s (Thompso n 1972
, Clos s 1977)
. Whe n th e plane t mad e it s firs t appearanc e i n th e pre-daw n sky , it s dazzlin g ray s penetrate d th e earth . Picture s i n th e Dresde n revea l mani - festation s o f th e Venu s go d spearin g hi s victim s wit h arrow s whic h sym - boliz e th e firs t ray s o f Venus . Speare d victim s an d attendan t ritua l cere -221 monies are also depicted. The Venus symbol is prevalent in the Maya inscriptions , bot h i n th e codice s an d i n stone . I t i s perhap s th e cychca l natur e o f th e motio n o f Venu s whic h attracte d th e May a mor e tha n it s shee r brilliance . B y a coincidenc e o f celestia l mechanic s th e mos t easil y observe d cycl e o f th e plane t meshe s wit h th e tropica l yea r i n simpl e whol e numbe r ratio . W e se e Venu s swin g bac k an d fort h relativ e t o th e sun , a s thoug h th e tw o wer e attached . Fo r abou t nin e month s i t stand s i n th e mornin g sk y abov e th e plac e wher e th e su n wil l ris e movin g slightl y farthe r awa y fro m th e su n o n successiv e days . Whe n i t reache s it s limi t o f 46
° fro m th e sun , i t retreat s towar d th e su n again . Afte r bein g los t i n th e sola r glar e fo r severa l week s th e plane t reappear s fo r a n additiona l 9-mont h period , behavin g th e sam e wa y a s i t di d a s "mornin g star " excep t tha t i t execute s it s celestia l manoeuver s i n th e wes t afte r sunset . A s i t slowl y approache s th e su n again , Venu s become s mor e difficul t t o see , remainin g visibl e afte r sunse t fo r eve r shorte r inter - vals . Finally , i t come s to o clos e t o th e su n t o observ e an d disappear s int o th e sun' s light . Afte r a week , th e watchfu l observe r ca n glimps e it s firs t ray s fo r a fe w fleetin g moment s i n th e morin g sk y - heliaca l rise . Th e entir e cycl e average s 58
4 day s an d 5 suc h oscillation s ar e almos t exactl y equivalen t t o 8 seasona l eart h years . Thi s mean s tha t an y aspec t o f Venu s onc e viewe d i s boun d t o recu r a t abou t th e sam e calenda r dat e 8 year s later . Th e Venu s table s i n th e Dresde n Codex , i n fact , ar e arrange d i n rows , eac h consistin g o f 5 period s o f 58
4 days . Thi s forma t indicate s tha t th e 8-yea r cycl e o f Venu s wa s a ver y importan t perio d fo r May a astronomers . Whil e May a calendrice s wer e employe d i n a historica l capacity , the y wer e als o use d fo r astrological , numerologica l an d agricultura l purposes . Th e May a wer e necessaril y concerne d wit h th e incorporatio n o f nature' s fundamenta l period s int o a n ordere d tempora l whole . W e ca n thin k o f th e grea t May a tim e machin e a s bein g compose d o f man y cycles , eac h containin g a pre-ordaine d numbe r o f day s tha t th e astronomer-pries t sough t t o fi t togethe r i n perfec t harmony . Onl y the n coul d th e musi c o f th e sphere s b e hear d i n th e domai n o f huma n affairs . Moder n computation s o f th e motio n o f Venu s revea l tha t beyon d th e basi c 584-da
y "Venu s year " th e movemen t o f th e planet , a s viewe d fro m th e eart h fram e o f reference , ca n b e quit e complicated . Watche d closely , however , th e apparen t celestia l meandering s ca n b e broke n dow n int o a serie s o f repeatabl e phenomen a whic h coul d hav e bee n o f considerabl e us e t o ancien t calender-keepers . Sinc e ther e i s considerabl e evidenc e tha t ancie'n t Mesoamerica n astronomer s observe d event s o n th e loca l horizo n (Ave n 1977)
, i t woul d b e logica l t o ope n an y investigatio n o f Venu s astronom y b y askin g th e question : Wha t doe s Venu s d o o n th e horizo n 22
2 of Yucatan? Since it always seems attached to the sun, never moving mor e tha n a fe w degree s ou t o f th e plan e o f th e ecliptic , th e plane t ca n b e expecte d t o ris e an d se t nea r th e plac e wher e th e su n rise s an d set s o n a give n day . Therefore , lik e th e sun , it s extrem e ris e an d se t point s ca n b e expecte d t o underg o a n annua l oscillatio n o f amphtud e abou t 25
° eithe r sid e o f th e east-wes t One . Bu t ove r longe r period s o f tim e mino r oscilla - tion s o f Venu s nort h an d sout h o f th e eclipti c stretc h th e extreme s a littl e beyon d thos e whic h th e su n attains . Th e differenc e provide s a logica l oberservationa l tes t fo r Venus-watchin g a s oppose d t o sun-watching . I f th e May a wer e creatin g specia l alignment s t o mar k th e swin g position s o f Venu s alon g th e horizon , th e arrangemen t ough t t o deviat e b y a signi - fican t amoun t fro m a sola r alignment . I t happen s tha t som e o f thes e extreme s ar e greate r tha n others . W e shal l cal l th e "grea t extremes " thos e whic h deviat e b y th e wides t margi n fro m th e sola r extremes . Actually , Venu s surge s throug h a numbe r o f 8-yea r oscillation s o f varyin g amphtud e o n th e horizon . I f a n observe r mark s a Venu s grea t extrem e o n th e horizon , h e find s tha t almos t precisel y th e sam e even t i s attaine d 8 year s later . Afte r 16 , 32
, an d 6 4 years , a give n grea t extrem e i s stil l quit e recognizable , thoug h i t ma y occu r a fe w min - ute s o f ar c awa y fro m th e origina l one . Abou t 2 centurie s later , tha t grea t extrem e begin s t o fade , thoug h i t i s continuall y replace d b y other s whic h migh t occu r i n differen t season s o f th e tropica l year . Th e absolut e maximu m extrem e attainabl e i n an y give n perio d als o fluctuate s wit h tim e thu s makin g th e situatio n quie t complicated . Ye t fro m a purel y observationa l poin t o f view , extrem a an d thei r cycle s ar e quit e easil y witnesse d i f on e i s consciou s o f th e sky . T o illustrat e bot h th e complexit y an d th e inheren t simplicit y o f th e situation , th e las t colum n o f Tabl e 1 list s th e date s fo r tw o set s o f Venu s grea t extremes , her e define d a s th e midpoin t o f a perio d o f tim e durin g whic h Venu s attain s a decHnatio n i n exces s o f |2 5 1/2°| . Th e dat a appl y t o th e perio d A.D . 70
0 - 900
, whe n May a cultur e i n th e Centra l Pete n wa s quit e active . Th e calculation s wer e mad e fro m Tuckerman' s (1964 ) tables . Ou r precisio n i s hmite d onl y b y th e accurac y wit h whic h th e table s ca n b e read , whic h i s a t leas t a s precis e a s th e May a coul d hav e ob - serve d th e planet . Not e ho w remarkabl y anchore d withi n th e seasona l yea r thes e pheno - men a remain . Cycl e A , occurin g aroun d th e 1s t o f Ma y a t th e beginnin g o f th e 8t h centur y shift s slightl y backwar d int o mid-Apri l befor e i t become s indistinguishabl e b y th e middl e o f th e nint h century . Cycl e B , consistin g o f mid-Ma y event s a t 8-yea r interval s become s mor e pro - nounce d i n th e nint h century . B y th e beginnin g o f th e 10t h century , whe n w e stoppe d followin g it , th e Venu s extrem e wa s takin g plac e a t th e 22
3 end of April. These events are readily noticeable and would be especially significan t i n a horizon-consciou s astronomica l system . W e fin d stron g evidenc e tha t th e May a wer e actuall y watchin g Venu s extreme s i n tw o instance s (Aven i 1975
; Aveni , Gibb s an d Härtun g 1975)
: (1 ) A t Uxma l th e Palac e o f th e Governor s i s situate d o n a n artificia l terrac e skewe d 20 ° ou t o f lin e wit h th e othe r building s a t th e site . It s mai n axi s point s t o th e southerl y extrem e o f Venu s abou t A D 80
0 whe n th e comple x wa s built . Th e sigh t lin e als o passe s ove r th e mai n pyrami d a t th e ruin s o f Nohpa t 6 k m away , whic h w e expec t th e May a deliberatel y buil t ther e becaus e the y believe d th e celestia l motion s pre-ordaine d it . (2 ) A t Chiche n Itz a severa l significan t alignment s i n th e Caraco l mar k th e norther n an d souther n extreme s o f Venu s durin g th e perio d A.D . 80
0 - 100
0 whe n th e structur e wa s erected . Thes e alignment s wer e doubl y con - vincin g becaus e the y occu r i n a roun d tower , th e for m o f whic h i s know n t o hav e bee n associate d wit h Quetzalcoatl , an d the y wer e erecte d a t abou t th e sam e tim e an d i n abou t th e sam e plac e a s th e Dresde n Code x originated . Th e existenc e o f suc h alignment s lend s suppor t t o a furthe r searc h fo r Venu s extreme s i n May a architecture . TEMPL E 2 2 A T COPA N Templ e 2 2 a t Copa n whic h contain s Venu s symbol s o n th e hig h relief s sculpture s whic h ador n it s inne r doorwa y (se e Figs . 1 an d 2) , wa s tho - roughl y excavate d i n th e 1930'
s b y A . Tri k (1939) . I t i s amon g th e fe w building s i n ancien t Mesoameric a t o posses s a windo w (se e Fig . 3) . Th e aperture , o f dimension s 7 0 X 1 5 cm. , i s locate d o n th e wes t sid e o f th e building . Viewe d fro m th e rea r o f th e chambe r whic h house s it , th e windo w subtend s a n angl e o f 5 ° (se e Fig . 4) . A . Aven i an d H . Härtun g (1976 ) determine d tha t thi s directio n i s virtuall y paralle l t o th e astronom - ica l basehn e connectin g Stela e 1 2 an d 1 0 a t Copan . Followin g Morle y (1926 ; Morle y an d Brainer d 1956
: 13 2 f. ) the y assume d tha t th e primar y purpos e o f th e windo w wa s t o sigh t th e settin g su n o n Apri l 12 , a t th e sam e tim e priest s o n th e easter n sid e o f th e Copa n valle y a t Stel a 1 2 viewe d th e sunse t behin d Stel a 1 0 som e 7 k m away . Becaus e th e milp a agricultura l practic e o f burnin g th e ol d vegetatio n wa s an d stil l i s initiate d abou t mid-April , prio r t o th e comin g o f th e rain y season , i t seeme d logica l t o associat e th e sola r alignmen t i n th e windo w wit h th e terminatio n o f th e dr y season . Afte r th e publicatio n o f th e preUminar y repor t o f Aven i an d Härtun g (1976 ) o n astronomica l orientation s a t Copan , Clos s suggeste d tha t th e 22
4 symbolism on Temple 22 pointed to additional associations of the agri- cultura l cycl e wit h Venu s an d th e rain y season . A n inspectio n o f photograph s an d drawing s o f th e interio r doorwa y o f th e templ e (Fig . 1 ; Maudsla y 188
9 - 1902,1
: pis . 1 2 - 15;Tri k 1939
: Fig . 5 , pis . 1 2 f. ) show s huma n figure s crouche d an d seate d o n eithe r sid e o f a benc h formin g th e floo r o f th e doorwa y an d it s interio r room . Th e benc h contain s a hieroglyphi c tex t betwee n larg e skull s a t eac h end . Th e crouchin g figure s suppor t a bicephali c monste r wit h infixe d Venu s sig n o n th e wes t hea d (th e windo w side ) an d kin (sun ) sig n o n th e eas t head . Th e bod y o f th e monste r i s serpentin e o n eithe r sid e o f th e door - wa y bu t ove r it s centra l spa n consist s o f a serie s o f S-shape d an d reverse -

S-shape

d symbol s i n whic h smal l huma n figure s ar e intertwined . Venu s glyph s ar e attache d t o eac h sid e o f th e serpen t body . J . Eri c S . Thompso n (1970 : 278
) ha s propose d tha t th e crouchin g huma n figure s a t eac h sid e o f th e doorwa y ar e Bacabs . The y ar e recog - nize d b y nette d headdresse s wit h a centra l kno t o r medallion . On e o f th e role s o f th e Bacab s i s t o suppor t th e sk y s o tha t i t doe s no t fall , a rol e whic h th e figure s o n Templ e 2 2 see m t o b e fulfiUing . Th e nette d head - dres s i s characteristi c o f a n importan t underworl d deit y know n a s Go d N .

Evidenc

e tha t Go d N ma y b e identifie d wit h Pauahtun , a go d frequentl y mentione d i n colonia l Yucate c sources , ha s bee n provide d b y M . D . Co e (1973 : 1 4 f.) . Th e tw o interpretation s ar e no t necessaril y mutuall y exclusiv e sinc e som e May a god s hav e severa l name s an d title s a s wel l a s man y functions . Th e possibilit y tha t th e Bacab s an d Pauahtun s ar e th e sam e i s suggeste d b y Bisho p Land a (Thompso n 1970
: 255
) wh o doe s no t distinguis h betwee n them . I n fact , h e regard s the m a s equivalen t t o th e

Yucateca

n rai n gods , th e Chacs . Ther e i s als o othe r evidence , cite d b y

Thompso

n (1970 : 255)
, linkin g th e Pauahtun s wit h th e Chacs : (1 ) I n th e writings , date d 1813
, o f Granad o d e Baeza , cur a o f Yaxcaba , Th e

Pauahtun

s ar e calle d Pahahtun s an d ar e sai d t o b e rai n deities . (2 ) Accordin g t o hmen informant s o f R . Redfiel d an d A . Vill a Rojas , c . 1934
,

Pahuatu

n (sic ) i s a n alternativ e nam e fo r Chac . (3 ) I n Quintan a Roo , Vill a Rojas , c . 1945
, note d tha t th e form s Papatu n an d

Babatu

n occu r an d ar e regarde d a s alternativ e name s fo r th e Chacs . Th e bicephali c monste r spannin g th e doorwa y belong s t o a clas s o f celestia l monster s o f whic h Thompso n (1939 : 15 4 - 156
) write s "ther e ca n b e littl e doub t o f th e intimat e connectio n betwee n thes e celestia l monster s an d watei r symbolism" . Th e aquati c symbolis m o f th e Copa n monste r i s heightene d b y som e additiona l factors . Firs t w e ma y not e a specia l connectio n th e Copa n doorwa y ha s wit h th e doorwa y o f Palac e Hous e E a t Palenque . L . Schei e (1976 : 20 ) writes : 22
5 "Both doorways are surmounted by a celestial monster with infixed Venu s sign s o n th e fron t hea d an d kin sign s o n th e rea r head . Bot h door s for m a passag e wa y tha t ca n b e use d b y livin g people . T o m y knowledg e onl y thes e tw o door s an d a secon d Palencan o doo r i n Hous e E ar e physica l object s whic h exis t i n th e physica l worl d an d ca n b e use d b y people . Al l othe r representation s o f th e celestia l monste r a s a doorwa y ar e pictoria l abstractions. " Sh e add s tha t th e bod y o f th e monste r a t Palenqu e i s compose d o f a sk y band , possibl y representin g planet s an d stars , i n whic h cas e i t i s associate d wit h phenomen a o f th e nigh t sky . Th e aquati c connectio n o f th e Palenqu e monste r i s particularl y emphasize d b y th e fac t tha t wate r fall s fro m eac h o f it s heads . A secon d distinctiv e aspec t o f th e Copa n sk y monste r i s th e presenc e o f a clearl y delineate d serpentin e sectio n t o it s body . Thi s rar e featur e recall s th e sk y Chicchan s o f th e Chort i May a o f easter n Guatemala . Thes e ar e gian t snake s se t a t th e fou r worl d direction s an d ar e god s o f rain , thunde r an d lightning . The y ar e clos e relative s o f th e Chacs . I n fact , th e feature s o f th e Chac s ar e believe d t o b e derive d fro m thos e o f snakes . I n th e May a codices , Chac' s hea d i s sometime s attache d t o th e bod y o f a serpen t an d sometime s Cha c i s show n ridin g astrid e a serpent . Thompso n (1970 : 269
) consider s tha t th e rai n cult , wit h worl d colo r an d directiona l feature s an d wit h quadripartit e deitie s derivin g fro m o r fuse d wit h snakes , ha d develope d i n al l it s essential s b y th e en d o f th e May a Formativ e period . Th e Chiccha n deitie s o f th e Chort i hav e a specia l significanc e her e be - cause , prio r t o thei r conques t b y th e Spaniards , th e Chort i occupie d a regio n whic h include d th e local e o f whic h ancien t Copa n wa s th e cultur e centre .

Thompso

n (1938 : 58
4 f. ) ha s suggeste d tha t th e presen t da y Chort i ma y wel l b e descendent s o f th e inhabitant s o f Classi c perio d Copan . C . Wisdo m (1940 : 39
2 - 394
) describe s th e Chicchan(s ) a s th e mos t importan t o f th e nativ e Chort i deities . H e note s tha t Chiccha n "ma y hav e th e gian t for m o f a n ordinar y snake ; o r hi s uppe r bod y ma y b e tha t o f a ma n whil e hi s lowe r bod y i s tha t o f a feathere d snake ; o r h e ma y b e a giganti c ma n appearin g lik e a snak e t o people" . Th e "feathere d snake " attribut e o r guis e o f Chiccha n suggest s tha t h e ma y b e relate d t o Quetzalcoat l (Ku - kulcan) , th e Feathere d Serpent , a possibl e equivalenc e als o posite d b y

Wisdom

. Sinc e Quetzalcoat l ha s connection s wit h bot h th e rai n an d Venu s (o f whic h mor e wil l b e sai d later) , thi s hypothesi s ma y accoun t fo r th e presenc e o f Venu s glyph s o n th e bod y o f th e Copa n monster . I t als o en - hance s th e possibilit y o f a direc t relationshi p betwee n th e Copa n monste r an d th e Chort i Chiccha n deity . 22
6 Finally, it may be noted that the S-shaped symbols forming that part o f th e monster' s bod y abov e th e doorwa y ar e i n al l probabilit y wate r symbols . Th e bes t evidenc e fo r thi s i s see n o n a polychrom e vase , Dum - barto n Oak s 1 1 (Coe 1975: 19 - 21), which has a representation of the sam e S-shape d symbo l a s i s foun d a t Copan . Th e symbo l i s depicte d sub - merge d i n wate r an d i s foun d adjacen t t o a n Imi x Crocodile , a n ophidia n deity . Furthe r suppor t fo r th e notio n tha t i t i s a wate r symbo l come s fro m Coe' s indentificatio n o f i t a s a stylize d shell . W e no w tur n t o th e sculpture d element s o n th e exterio r o f Templ e 22
. Tri k (1939 : 100
) observe d tha t th e "entranc e doorwa y t o th e templ e wa s treate d i n th e for m o f a serpent' s mouth" . W e hav e alread y commente d o n th e connectio n o f snake s wit h water . Tha t suc h a n associatio n i s appli - cabl e her e i s suggeste d b y th e larg e mask s whic h fac e th e doorwa y o n eac h sid e (Tri k 1939
: pi . 116)
. Th e mask s ar e almos t certainl y head s o f frogs . Frog s hav e a n intimat e connectio n wit h th e rai n god s an d ar e know n a s th e musician s an d guest s o f th e Chac s (Thompso n 1970
: 258)
. O n Madri d 31
a frog s labele d wit h th e fou r worl d directiona l glyph s ar e spewin g fort h wate r an d surroun d a n imag e o f Cha c fro m whos e lowe r quarter s pour s a strea m o f water . Th e mask s facin g th e doorwa y als o contai n Caua c markings , symboli c o f rai n an d storm . I t i s interestin g t o not e tha t amon g th e moder n Chorti , frog s ar e stil l vaguel y associate d wit h wate r an d rai n (Wisdo m 1940
: 389)
. Th e fou r corner s o f Templ e 2 2 hav e long-nose d mask s se t int o th e wall s a t a 45
° angle . Thes e mask s ar e conventionall y calle d Cha c mask s becaus e thei r lon g nose s closel y resembl e th e pendulou s snou t o f Cha c a s h e i s show n i n th e codices . Thi s i s especiall y tru e o f th e mask s o n thi s temple . Tha t th e masks , i n thi s instance , ar e indee d Cha c mask s i s furthe r sug - geste d b y th e presenc e o f Caua c element s o n them . Amon g th e mos t outstandin g sculptura l form s o n th e templ e ar e life - size d figure s consistin g o f hea d an d tors o whic h A . P . Maudsla y regarde d a s "singin g girls" . Maudsla y foun d evidenc e tha t thre e suc h figure s stand - in g ou t i n ful l relie f fro m th e wais t upward s ha d bee n range d alon g th e uppe r par t o f th e wes t wall . Tri k (1939 : 102
) writes: " Th e numbe r o f head s tha t hav e bee n foun d i n th e debri s an d nea r Templ e 2 2 suggest s tha t thes e figure s wer e use d a s a n uppe r zon e decoratio n al l aroun d th e building. " I t i s no w know n tha t thes e figure s represen t th e youn g maiz e go d (Thompso n 1970
: pi . 13 ; Tri k 1939
: pis . 1 4 f.) . Th e abov e analysi s o f th e ornamentatio n o f Templ e 2 2 lead s t o th e conclusio n tha t i t wa s dedicate d t o th e youn g maiz e go d an d th e comin g o f th e rains . A s such , th e templ e ha s a n agricultura l focu s and , moreover , ca n b e relate d t o specifi c seasona l event s i n th e agricultura l year . Indeed , 22
7 the coming of the rains and the planting of the new maize occurs in late Apri l an d earl y Ma y throughou t mos t o f th e May a area . Templ e 2 2 stand s i n th e middl e o f th e terrac e o n th e nort h sid e o f th e

Easter

n Cour t o f Copan . S . G . Morle y (1920 ; 1 0 f. ) ha s characterize d th e Easter n Cour t a s "th e cente r o f religiou s lif e o f th e city " an d Templ e 22
, i n particular , a s "th e mos t importan t religiou s structur e i n th e city" . Hi s view s wer e prompte d b y th e concentratio n o f building s i n thi s cour t an d b y th e magnificenc e o f Templ e 22
. I t ma y no w b e adde d tha t thes e view s ar e i n accor d wit h th e gran d agricultura l them e o f Templ e 22
. I t i s o f interes t t o not e tha t eas t o f Templ e 2 2 an d arrange d aroun d th e northeas t corne r o f th e cour t ar e Temple s 21a
, 21
, an d 20 . Th e wall s o f Templ e 21
a abu t agains t thos e o f th e substructure s o f Temple s 2 1 an d 22
, th e natur e o f th e contac t indicatin g tha t i t i s th e mos t recen t o f thes e three . A t th e threshol d o f th e inne r doorwa y o f Templ e 2l a ther e i s a sculpture d ste p wit h a singl e ban d o f glyph s interrupte d b y thre e larg e Venu s symbols . Morle y (1920 : 319
) ha s use d a perio d endin g dat e t o fi x it s chronologica l positio n a t 9.17.0.0. 0 i n th e Lon g Count . A s pointe d ou t above , th e inne r doorwa y o f Templ e 2 2 i s dominate d b y a tw o heade d monste r whos e wes t hea d i s marke d wit h a Venu s glyp h an d whos e eas t hea d i s marke d wit h a su n glyph . Thes e label s indicat e tha t th e celestia l monste r embodie s som e for m o f Venus-su n duality .

Nevertheless

, th e Venu s elemen t i s emphasize d i n thi s cas e b y additiona l Venu s glyph s o n th e monster' s serpentin e body . If , a s posite d earlier , th e Copa n monste r i s relate d t o th e grea t Chiccha n deit y o f th e Chort i wit h it s possibl e Venu s affiliations , ther e i s furthe r reaso n t o attribut e som e Venu s connectio n t o th e former . Finally , th e thre e prominen t Venu s glyph s i n th e inscriptio n o f th e abuttin g Templ e 21
a argu e tha t th e structur e clustere d i n thi s par t o f th e Easter n Cour t ma y hav e a specia l relationshi p t o Venus . Th e presenc e o f over t Venu s symbolis m i n th e iconograph y o f Templ e 2 2 an d th e fac t tha t additiona l Venu s association s ar e plausibl e i n tha t context , sugges t tha t Venu s ma y b e a par t o f a comple x includin g th e ne w maiz e an d th e comin g o f th e rains . VENUS , TH E NE W MAIZ E AN D TH E COMIN G O F TH E RAIN S Th e mos t ancien t an d widesprea d Venu s cul t i n Mesoameric a i s tha t o f th e Feathere d Serpent . Th e cul t o f th e Feathere d Serpen t ca n b e trace d bac k t o Olme c time s (Joralemo n 1971
: 8 2 - 84
) bu t ther e i s n o evidenc e tha t i t wa s a t tha t tim e linke d t o th e worshi p o f Venus . Th e Feathere d Serpen t als o appear s 22
8 in the art of Teotihuacan as an adjunct of Tlaloc, the god of rain and

Hghtning

, an d i s closel y connecte d wit h rai n an d vegetation . N . Davie s (1977 : 5 7 - 62
) review s previou s studie s relatin g t o th e presenc e o f a

Quetzalcoat

l cul t a t Teotihuacan . H e doe s no t believ e ther e i s sufficien t evidenc e t o lin k th e Feathere d Serpen t ther e wit h Quetzalcoat l i n hi s identi y a s Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli , go d o f Venu s a s th e Mornin g Star . In - stead , Davie s (1977 : 6 3 - 69
) place s th e origin s o f th e Quetzalcoat l Venu s cul t i n th e grea t period s o f E l Taji n an d Xochicalco , almos t contem - poraneou s wit h th e declin e an d fal l o f Teotihuaca n an d th e beginning s o f th e Lat e Classi c May a period . I n th e Thompso n correlatio n (correla - tio n constan t = 584,283
) thi s perio d i s date d a s A.D . 65
0 - 750
. Th e dat a fro m Xochicalc o demonstrate s tha t b y thi s time , a t th e latest , th e mar - riag e o f th e plane t Venu s an d th e Feathere d Serpen t ha d bee n consum - mated . Piñ a Cha n (Davie s 1977
: 67
) emphasize s th e importanc e o f th e

Xochicalc

o stela e 1 , 2 , an d 3 i n providin g representation s o f Quetzalcoat l a s th e Mornin g Star . I t i s als o interestin g t o not e hi s insistenc e tha t th e majo r par t o f th e offering s associate d wit h th e mai n templ e o f Xochicalc o com e fro m th e Gul f Coast , principall y fro m th e May a area . I t i s als o apparen t fro m th e Xochicalc o materia l tha t Quetzalcoat l i s closel y tie d t o Tlaloc . Thus , i n hi s earlies t manifestatio n a s a Venu s god , th e Feathere d

Serpen

t i s stil l associate d wit h th e rain . I n late r age s Quetzalcoat l wa s t o assum e a plethor a o f functions , a s befit s a deit y wit h suc h ancien t origins . Hi s cul t wa s t o sprea d amon g th e

Zapotees

, Mixtees , Toltecs , Huastecs , Aztec s an d Mayas , ye t hi s origi n a s a rai n go d wa s neve r fa r fro m view .

Thompso

n (1971 : 134
) considere d tha t th e late r Quetzalcoat l wa s "primaril y th e deit y o f fres h vegetation , o f growt h whe n th e rain s come" . Hi s vie w i s derive d fro m a n analysi s o f th e Son g t o Xip e Totee , th e Azte c go d o f spring . Th e followin g fragmen t o f th e son g (Caso , 1958
: 7 5 - 76
) i s o f particula r interest : Oh , m y god , th y wate r o f preciou s stone s Ha s fallen ; Th e tal l cypres s Ha s change d int o a quetza l bird . Th e fir e serpen t Ha s bee n change d int o a plume d serpent . Th e fir e serpen t ha s lef t m e g o free .

Perhap

s h e wil l disappear ,

Perhap

s h e wil l diappear , an d I wil l destro y myself . Lik e unt o th e preciou s jad e M y hear t i s green ; 22
9

But I shall yet see the gold

An d I shal l rejoic e i f i t ha s ripene d I f th e leade r o f th e wa r i s born . Th e son g i s a n invocatio n t o th e go d o f sprin g requestin g rai n (th e wate r o f preciou s stones ) s o th e cypres s wil l becom e gree n (Uk e th e quetza l bird ) an d th e dr y seaso n (fir e serpent ) wil l b e transforme d int o th e rain y seaso n (plume d serpent) . Wit h th e disappearanc e o f th e dr y weathe r an d th e comin g o f th e rains , th e tende r youn g (green ) maiz e appear s an d hold s fort h th e promis e o f th e rip e golde n maiz e t o come . I n thi s analysis , unlik e tha t o f Thompson , th e Plume d Serpen t sym - bolize s th e comin g o f th e rain s an d no t th e fres h vegetation . Th e fres h vegetatio n i s represente d b y th e quetza l bir d an d quintessentiall y b y th e ne w maize . Thi s son g fragmen t exemplifie s th e ide a o f a Venu s (Plume d

Serpent)-maize-rai

n comple x a t th e hear t o f th e agricultura l cycle .

Quetzalcoat

l i s know n t o th e Quich e May a o f th e Guatemala n high - land s unde r th e nam e o f O'uq ' Kumatz . I n addition , h e i s t o b e identifie d wit h th e Quich e go d Tohil , a s i s mad e clea r i n th e "Popo l Vuh " (Edmon - so n 1971
: 183)
. Tohi l i s th e go d o f th e nint h da y o f th e calendar , Rain , an d hi s nam e i s translate d a s "Storm " o r "Thunder" . Therefore , amon g th e Quich e th e associatio n o f Quetzalcoat l wit h th e rain s ha s bee n maintained . Thi s connectio n wa s als o maintaine d elsewher e i n th e highland s a s i s show n b y passage s i n "Th e Annal s o f th e Cakchiquels " (Recinos , Chonay , an d Goet z 1953
, 59
, 76)
. Th e mos t detaile d informatio n availabl e o n traditiona l May a belief s concernin g Venu s come s fro m th e Kekchi , Kekchi-Cho l an d Mopa n May a o f Souther n an d Centra l Beliz e (Thompso n 1930)
. I n thi s regio n Venu s i s know n a s Xulab , No h Ic h o r Nohoc h Ich , th e latte r tw o name s meanin g "Grea t Eye" , an d h e i s ranke d nex t t o th e Christia n Go d i n power . H e i s th e patro n o f agricuhure , huntin g an d fishing . However , h e delegate s hi s authorit y t o hi s servant s th e Mams . Th e Mam s ar e recognize d b y th e Mopa n a s equivalent s o f th e Yucateca n rai n gods , th e Chacs . Thus , th e ultimat e powe r ove r th e rain s i s implicitl y hel d b y Venu s an d th e rai n god s ar e hi s servants . Th e relationshi p betwee n Venu s an d th e rain s i s als o reveale d i n th e Stor y o f a disput e th e su n ha d wit h th e cloud s (Thompso n 1930
: 15 9 f.) . Th e cloud s maintaine d tha t the y cause d th e rai n whe n the y forme d them - selves . Th e su n denie d tha t the y cause d th e rain , a s withou t hi s permissio n the y coul d no t cros s hi s face . Th e su n wa s s o annoye d tha t h e refuse d permissio n t o th e cloud s t o cros s th e heavens . A s a resul t ther e wa s a terribl e drought , an d th e peopl e bega n t o di e o f famine . A t th e con - 23
0 elusion of the tale, the people received rain, having followed instructions sen t b y Mam , an d th e su n mad e hi s peac e wit h th e clouds . " I no w see, " th e su n said , "tha t I a m no t quit e s o powerfu l a s you . I n a fe w minute s you r cloud s covere d th e sky , an d mad e i t s o tha t 1 coul d no t se e anything . Yo u wil l b e m y elde r brother. " Th e las t statemen t i s ver y significan t sinc e Lor d Xulab , th e plane t Venus , i s th e elde r brothe r o f Lor d Kin , th e su n (Thompso n 1930
: 120)
.

Furthe

r evidenc e t o suppor t th e Venus-Clou d equatio n ca n b e derive d fro m th e May a stor y i n whic h Su n suspect s tha t Moo n i s havin g a n affai r wit h Venus . A Kekch i versio n o f thi s tal e ha s Clou d a s th e suspecte d adulterer . (Thompso n 1939
: 16 9 - 17 0 an d 1971
: 230)
. Th e equatin g o f th e rai n cloud s wit h Venu s recall s a simila r concep t amon g th e Huichole s wher e rai n cloud s ar e considere d t o b e plume d serpent s (Davie s 1977
: 56)
. Ther e i s als o evidenc e i n th e codice s linkin g Venu s an d th e rain . Lahu n Chan , th e manifestatio n o f Venu s a s Mornin g Sta r o n Dresde n 47
, i s de - picte d wit h th e nos e o f th e rai n go d Chac . Go d L , th e manifestatio n o f th e Mornin g Sta r o n Dresde n 46
, appear s a s a protagonis t i n th e celestia l downpou r scen e o n Dresde n 74
. I n th e sam e vein , a blac k go d closel y affiliate d t o an d possibl y identica l wit h Go d L i s th e protagonis t i n scene s showin g heav y rainfall s o n Madri d 32a-b
. Th e Venus-maize-rai n comple x appear s i n it s entiret y i n myth s relatin g t o th e discover y o f maize . A descriptio n o f thi s al l importan t event , fro m th e Mexica n plateau , i s give n i n th e "Leyend a d e lo s soles " (Thompso n 1970
: 348)
. Th e sourc e relate s tha t Quetzalcoat l aske d th e ant , wh o i s credite d wit h th e initia l discover y o f maize , wher e h e obtaine d th e maiz e whic h h e wa s carrying . Upo n receivin g th e information , h e transforme d himsel f int o a blac k an t an d accompanie d hi s informan t t o th e deposi t o f maiz e secrete d beneat h a mountain . H e the n too k som e grain s an d carrie d the m t o th e othe r god s i n Tamoanchan . Eventuall y th e mountai n wa s broke n ope n b y Nanahuat l an d th e grai n wa s secured . Subsequentl y i t wa s stole n b y th e Tlalocs .

Thompso

n (1930 : 140
) als o gav e anothe r descriptio n o f thi s myt h take n fro m th e "Anale s d e Cuauhtitlan" . Th e onl y differenc e wit h th e abov e i s tha t Xolotl , th e go d o f Venu s a s Evenin g Star , split s ope n th e mountain s rathe r tha n Nanahuatl . Thompso n (1971 : 79
) write s elsewher e tha t ther e i s a clos e relationshi p betwee n Xolot l an d Nanauatzin . H e note s tha t on e ca n b e substitute d fo r th e othe r i n th e serie s o f day s an d week s an d tha t th e tw o ar e confuse d i n mythology . H e consider s tha t Nanuatzi n i s merel y a varian t o f Xolotl . Th e Mopa n an d Kekch i als o attribut e th e initia l discover y o f maiz e t o th e ants . Th e ant s supplie d th e othe r animal s wit h maiz e take n fro m 23
1 beneath a great rock but soon could not keep up with the demand. The proble m wa s overcom e b y Yaluk , th e greates t o f th e Mams , wh o hurle d a thunderbol t a t a spo t o n th e roc k indicate d b y a woodpecke r an d thereb y shattere d it . Onc e th e maiz e wa s freed , mos t o f i t wa s stole n b y th e othe r Mam s (Thompso n 1970
: 34
9 - 350)
. Th e Bachajon-Tzelta l hav e a simila r myt h o f th e findin g o f th e maize . I t i s a larg e blac k an t (xolop) wh o i s firs t see n carryin g maize . Afte r som e persuasio n th e an t reveal s th e sourc e o f th e maiz e withi n a rock . Follow - in g som e initia l assistanc e fro m a woodpecker , th e re d Chahuuc , on e o f th e Tzotzi l rai n gods , sph t th e roc k ope n wit h lightning . Whe n th e maiz e ha d bee n freed , mos t o f i t wa s stole n (Thompso n 1970
: 35
1 f.) . Th e Tzelta l o f Tenejap a sa y tha t Go d too k maiz e fro m th e ant s wh o ha d obtaine d i t fro m th e Anhele s (Thompso n 1970
: 352)
. Th e Anhele s ar e agai n Tzotzi l rai n gods . Al l o f thes e myth s involv e ants , maiz e an d th e correspondin g regiona l rai n gods . I n particular , th e Mexica n versio n inform s u s tha t Quetzalcoat l becam e a blac k ant . Thu s a t th e cor e o f th e myt h w e ar e provide d wit h th e allegor y ant-maize-rai n god s fo r Venus-maize-rai n gods . Ther e i s additiona l suppor t fo r thi s allegory . I n th e Bachajon-Tzelta l versio n w e ar e tol d tha t th e blac k an t i s calle d xolop. Thi s i s probabl y cognat e wit h

Yucate

c xulab, als o a specie s o f ant . W e recal l tha t Xula b i s th e nam e o f th e Mopa n an d Kekch i Venu s god . Venu s i s als o associate d wit h th e maiz e b y virtu e o f sharin g th e sam e da y nam e i n th e 260-da
y calendar . Th e Azte c go d o f maize , CenteotI , ha s th e da y nam e On e Flower . Th e correspondin g da y i n th e May a calenda r i s On e Ahau . Now , 1 Aha u (Hu n Hunahpu ) i s a n importan t mythica l characte r i n th e "Popo l Vuh" , who , afte r hi s deat h an d resurrection , become s th e Mornin g Sta r (Edmonso n 1971
: 14 3 f.) . I t ma y als o b e note d tha t 1 Aha u i s th e bas e dat e fo r Venu s calculation s i n th e Dresde n Codex . D . Kelle y (1965 : 10 8 -110 ) ha s suggeste d tha t 1 Aha u an d 1 Flowe r ma y b e on e an d th e sam e god . I n defens e o f thi s identificatio n h e refer s t o a stylize d 1 Aha u whic h i s directl y abov e th e hea d o f th e maiz e go d o n th e table t fro m th e Templ e o f th e Foliate d Cros s a t Palenque . I n addition , M . Cohoda s (1976 : 160
) comment s tha t th e May a maiz e go d i s patro n o f th e numbe r 8 , th e numbe r o f day s Venu s spend s i n th e underworl d befor e it s rebirt h a s mornin g star . H e als o note s tha t th e Azte c ceremon y cele - bratin g th e completio n o f th e Venus-sola r cylcl e o f 5 X 58
4 = 8 X 36
5 day s i s dedicate d t o th e rejuvenatio n o f th e maize . Th e 8 year s require d fo r th e Venu s cycl e t o harmoniz e wit h th e agricultura l year , onc e agai n recall s th e maiz e god' s patronag e o f th e numbe r 8 . Th e abov e consideration s indicat e profoun d relationship s betwee n Venu s an d th e rain s an d betwee n Venu s an d th e maize . W e hav e see n tha t 23
2 a Venus-maize-rain complex appears in the Song to Xipe Totee as well a s i n th e mytholog y relatin g t o th e discover y o f maize . Thi s sam e com - ple x find s a n architectura l realizatio n i n Templ e 22
. A COSMOLOGICA L REALIT Y Th e Son g t o Xip e Totee , th e myth s o f th e discover y o f maiz e an d th e iconograph y o f Templ e 2 2 al l sugges t tha t th e Venus-maize-rai n comple x i s connecte d wit h th e ne w maiz e an d th e comin g o f th e rains . Th e be - ginnin g o f th e rain y seaso n i s th e singl e mos t importan t climati c facto r i n th e agricultura l cycl e o f th e Maya . It s actua l occuranc e i s variabl e fro m yea r t o yea r an d regio n t o region , bu t it s ritua l celebratio n i s not . S . G . Morle y an d G . W . Brainer d (1956 : 134
) write : "Plantin g i s begu n immediatel y afte r th e firs t rains , whic h al l May a believ e wil l fal l o n th e Da y o f th e Hol y Cros s (Ma y 3). " Whil e thi s i s somethin g o f a n over - statement , i t seem s t o b e generall y applicabl e i n th e May a lowlands . R . Redfiel d an d Y . Vill a Roja s (1962 : 84
, 110
) speakin g o f th e Yuca - teca n villag e o f Cha n Kom , write : " Th e mos t importan t festa l da y o f th e yea r i s th e Da y o f th e Cross , th e thir d o f May. " The y als o write : "Nove - na s ma y b e offere d t o th e Hol y Cros s a t an y time ; bu t durin g Apri l an d May , an d especiall y o n Ma y 3 .. . th e Hol y Cros s i s honore d b y novena s an d jaranas in all the villages of the region."

Thompso

n (197Ó : 268
) describe s celebration s an d offering s mad e b y th e Tzotzi l o n Ma y 3 fo r abundan t rain s an d bountifu l crops .

Thompso

n (1930 : 11 2 f. ) elsewher e discusse s a pi g ceremon y main - taine d b y th e May a o f Socot z i n Centra l Belize . Th e ceremon y i s hel d o n Hol y Cros s Da y an d a connectio n betwee n th e ho g an d th e produc e o f th e milp a i s strongl y emphasized . Thompso n (1930 : 55
) als o note s tha t amon g th e Mopa n May a o f Sa n Antoni o i n Souther n Belize , Hol y Cros s Da y mark s fo r man y milp a owner s th e tim e whe n th e maiz e cro p shoul d b e sown . Sinc e th e ancestor s o f th e Chort i ma y hav e inhabite d ancien t Copan , i t i s o f specia l interes t t o investigat e thei r belief s concernin g th e comin g o f th e rain s an d th e plantin g o f th e ne w maize . Th e exceptiona l impor - tanc e whic h th e onse t o f th e rain y seaso n ha s fo r th e Chort i i s wel l sum - marize d b y Wisdo m (1940 : 46
2 f. ) i n th e followin g passages . "Th e social , religious , an d economi c yea r ma y b e sai d t o begi n wit h th e rain y season , usuall y i n th e latte r par t o f Apri l o r i n th e earl y par t o f May . Th e officia l da y o f it s beginnin g i s Apri l 25
, St . Mark' s Day , whic h i s th e firs t da y o f th e rain-makin g festival , sometime s calle d St . Mark' s festival . Thi s date , calle d th e 'beginnin g o f th e year' , or , mor e commonly , th e 'beginnin g o f win - 23
3 ter', is noted primarily as the beginning of the rainy season, which is by far the mos t importan t seaso n o f th e yea r fo r th e Indians , an d secondaril y a s th e be - ginnin g o f th e yea r itself . .. . Al l th e Indian s mak e read y fo r th e annua l rain-makin g ceremon y an d festiva l whic h ar e celebrate d t o brin g o n th e firs t rain s o f th e year , s o tha t th e all - importan t crop s o f maiz e an d bean s ca n b e planted . Th e ceremon y itsel f i s hel d o n Apri l 25
, an d th e festiva l continue s fo r eigh t days , unti l Ma y 2 ... "

Cohoda

s (1976 : 163
) refer s t o th e sam e ceremon y an d describe s som e aspect s o f th e rain-bringin g ritual . I t include s sacrifice s a t a sacre d foun - tai n wher e th e No h Chi h Chan , th e grea t wate r serpen t o f th e north , i s sleepin g an d mus t b e awakene d t o begi n th e rain y season . Becaus e o f it s preservatio n o f pre-Europea n forms , th e Chort i celebratio n i s th e bes t mode l w e hav e fo r th e ancien t ceremonie s dedicate d t o th e comin g o f th e rains . I n fact , thes e ceremonie s ma y deriv e fro m th e ancien t ritual s performe d i n Copa n a t th e tim e Templ e 2 2 wa s i n use . Th e 8-da y duratio n o f th e Chort i ceremony , a n unusua l perio d i n May a ritual , suggest s th e influenc e o f th e maiz e god , patro n o f th e numbe r 8 . Th e mos t importan t par t o f th e festiva l i s th e rain-makin g ceremon y whic h take s plac e o n Apri l 25
. Wisdo m (1940 : 440
) note s tha t as a resul t o f th e ceremony , "th e rain s ar e expecte d t o com e no t late r tha n th e firs t da y afte r th e en d o f th e festival , whic h i s Ma y 3 , an d durin g th e eight - da y perio d th e deitie s ar e sai d t o b e gettin g read y t o sen d th e rain s ove r th e earth" .

Concernin

g th e plantin g o f th e ne w maize , Wisdo m (1940 : 440
) writes : "Ma y 3 mark s th e beginnin g o f th e plantin g festival , whic h continue s fo r fou r days . Thi s dat e i s th e Da y o f th e Hol y Cros s an d i s th e officia l da y o n whic h th e firs t rain s ar e t o come . Durin g th e da y an d evenin g th e plantin g ceremonies , whic h ar e th e mos t importan t par t o f th e festival , ar e performed. " T o brin g Venu s int o th e discussion , w e as k ourselve s i f tha t plane t exhibite d an y conspicuou s astronomica l phenomen a whic h ca n b e asso - ciate d wit h th e comin g o f th e rain s an d th e plantin g o f th e ne w maize , i n th e er a whe n Copa n flourished . Th e answe r i s affirmativ e a s ca n b e see n i n th e las t colum n o f Tabl e 1 . All th e grea t northerl y extreme s o f Venu s betwee n A.D . 70
0 an d A.D . 90
0 wer e visibl e i n Apri l o r May . Thi s i s th e perio d whic h wa s single d ou t a s particularl y appropriat e fo r celebration s i n hono r o f th e Hol y Cros s i n th e Cha n Ko m region . Mor e specifically , withi n thi s period , th e Venu s extreme s ten d t o occu r i n lat e Apri l o r earl y May . Thi s coincide s wit h th e usua l onse t o f th e rain y seaso n i n th e Chort i area . I n fact , th e Venu s extreme s cluste r aroun d th e 8-da y interva l betwee n Apri l 2 5 an d Ma y 3 , th e forma l ceremonia l perio d fo r th e comin g o f th e rain s an d th e plantin g o f th e ne w maize . Indeed , betwee n A.D . 23
4

700 and A. D. 781, 8 of the 10 extremes of Cycle A lie inside this interval.

Th e remainin g extreme s ar e withi n 3 day s an d 1 day , respectively , o f it .

Betwee

n A.D . 82
4 an d A.D . 897
, 7 o f th e 1 0 extreme s o f Cycl e B li e in - sid e th e interval . Th e other s ar e withi n 6 , 2 , an d 2 days , respectively , o f it . i n th e year s intervenin g betwee n A.D . 78
1 an d A.D . 824
, th e 5 extreme s o f Cycl e A an d th e 5 extreme s o f Cycl e B , h e a n averag e o f abou t 7 day s awa y fro m th e interval . A s a result , w e ca n affir m tha t grea t northerl y extreme s o f Venu s ar e seasona l phenomen a occurrin g a t th e tim e whic h i s tradionall y associate d wit h th e comin g o f th e rains . Hence , th e Venus - maize-rai n comple x doe s reflec t a cosmologica l reality . W e recal l tha t i n th e Chort i rain-makin g ritua l th e comin g o f th e rain s i s associate d wit h th e awakenin g o f th e wate r serpen t o f th e north . Sinc e th e cosmologica l voyag e o f Venu s t o a norther n extrem e indicate s tha t th e beginnin g o f th e rain y seaso n i s imminent , Venu s ma y hav e bee n envisage d a s th e agen t wh o wa s responsibl e fo r awakenin g th e grea t serpent , althoug h i t mus t b e realize d tha t grea t northerl y extreme s o f Venu s ar e no t annua l events . Thi s associatio n o f Venu s wit h th e nort h ma y accoun t fo r th e unusua l wor d fo r nort h i n th e Mora n vocabular y o f Manch e Chol . Her e nort h i s rendere d a s no ec, almos t certainl y mean t fo r noh ec, "Grea t Star" , th e Manch e Cho l ter m fo r Venus . Tha t ex - pressio n ma y hav e a n indirec t relatio n t o expression s fo r nort h foun d i n som e othe r May a language s wher e nort h bear s a descriptiv e nam e suc h a s "fro m her e th e water " (Thompso n 1971
: 249)
.

ORIENTATION

S I N TH E WINDO W O F TEMPL E 2 2 Sinc e th e iconograph y o f Templ e 2 2 a t Copa n expresse s th e Venus - maize-rai n complex , w e migh t logicall y examin e whethe r th e templ e struc - ture , i n particula r it s window , point s t o Venus . I n fact , i t fail s t o poin t i n th e directio n o f th e horizo n extreme s o f Venu s b y a wid e margin .

Inquirin

g furthe r int o th e matte r w e as k whe n wa s Venu s visibl e i n th e windo w durin g th e perio d o f architectura l activit y a t Templ e 2 2 an d d o th e period s o f visibilit y bea r an y reasonabl e relationshi p t o seasona l phenomena ? Th e firs t hal f o f th e questio n i s eas y enoug h t o answe r wit h th e us e o f a computer . Thu s w e hav e combine d ou r transi t an d tap e measurement s o f th e orientatio n an d angula r exten t o f th e horizo n viewe d throug h th e windo w togethe r wit h th e dat a fro m Tuckerman' s table s t o generat e a lis t o f date s whic h indicat e whe n Venu s woul d hav e actuall y appeare d i n th e windo w durin g period s o f dar k sky . T o mak e th e searc h a s thoroug h a s possibl e w e hav e programme d th e solutio n fo r oberserver s viewin g on-axi s an d alon g diagonal s throug h th e windo w fro m 23
5 the rear of the chamber which houses it. We found, as shown in Table 1, tha t th e apparition s o f Venu s usin g eithe r sightin g schem e almos t alway s occurre d i n Apri l o r May . Moreover , th e dat a o f th e grea t northerl y extreme s complemente d tha t o f th e windo w i n a remarkabl e manner . I n th e yea r prio r t o a grea t extreme , th e first da y o f visibilit y o f Venu s almos t alwa y fel l i n o r wa s ver y clos e t o th e 8-da y perio d fro m Apri l 2 5 t o Ma y 3 . I n th e yea r followin g a grea t extreme , th e last da y o f visibilit y o f Venu s ha d th e sam e property . I t follow s tha t th e apparition s o f Venu s throug h th e windo w o f Templ e 2 2 exhibi t th e sam e typ e o f seasona l relationshi p a s di d th e grea t norther - l y extreme s o f Venus . However , th e dat a fro m th e windo w complement s tha t o f th e grea t northerl y extremes . Consequently , th e tw o kind s o f Venu s phenomen a ca n b e combine d i n suc h a wa y a s t o generat e a n almos t annua l patter n o f seasona l observation s o f Venu s whic h coul d b e rituall y associate d wit h th e onse t o f th e rain y seaso n an d th e plantin g o f th e maize . T o illustrat e thi s cycl e o f seasona l observations , w e lis t a partia l sequenc e below . Th e sequenc e i s obtaine d fro m Tabl e 1 , usin g th e diagona l sightin g schem e fo r Venu s apparition s i n th e windo w o f Templ e 2 2 an d th e dat a fo r northerl y extremes . Yea r (A.D. ) Type of Venus Observation Date 70

0 earliest apparation in window Aprü 22

70

1 great northerly extreme May 2

70

2 latest apparition in window April 22

70
3 earlies t apparitio n i n windo w May 12 70
4 grea t northerl y extrem e May 11 70

5 latest apparition in window May 6

70

8 earliest apparition in window AprU 30

70

9 great northerly extreme April 30

71

0 latest apparition in window April 20

71

1 earliest apparition in window May 10

71

2 great northerly extreme May 14

71

3 latest apparition in window May 4

71

6 earliest apparition in window AprU 28

71
7 grea t northerl y extrem e April 28 71

8 latest apparition in window April 18

Ther e ar e a fe w gap s i n th e cycl e o f observation s i n th e abov e list , namely , i n th e year s 706
, 707
, 714
, an d 715
. However , th e nea r annua l patter n o f seasona l Venu s event s i s ver y surprisin g i n vie w o f th e 8-yea r perio d actuall y require d t o harmoniz e th e Venu s an d sola r cycles .

Whethe

r o r no t th e May a o f ancien t Copa n use d th e abov e scheme , o r a reasonabl e facsimile , t o relat e observabl e Venu s phenomen a t o th e comin g o f th e rain s an d th e plantin g o f th e ne w maiz e canno t b e known . 23
6 Nevertheless, we can assert that this type of scheme is natural to the physica l orientatio n o f th e windo w o f Templ e 22
, i s consisten t wit h a know n interes t i n Venu s extremes , i s i n agreemen t wit h th e symbolis m o f Templ e 22
, an d i s plausibl e i n th e ligh t o f ethnohistori c reference s con - cernin g Venu s an d th e agricultura l year .

CONCLUSIO

N I n th e foregoing , w e hav e show n tha t grea t northerl y extreme s o f Venu s occu r a t th e sam e tim e a s th e traditiona l perio d associate d wit h th e on - se t o f th e rain y season . Thes e extrem e point s ca n b e determine d b y simpl e visua l observatio n o f th e planet' s 8-yea r oscillatio n alon g th e horizon . Th e May a interes t i n suc h extreme s i s confirme d b y thei r erectio n o f structure s oriente d t o suc h points , W e hav e als o see n tha t th e firs t appearanc e o f Venu s i n th e windo w o f Templ e 2 2 coincide s wit h th e comin g o f th e rain s i n th e yea r precedin g a grea t northerl y extreme , whil e th e las t appearanc e o f Venu s i n th e windo w mark s th e comin g o f th e rain s i n th e yea r afte r a grea t northerl y extreme . Th e northerl y extreme s o f Venu s an d th e Venu s apparition s i n th e windo w ar e complementar y an d ca n b e combine d t o yiel d a schem e fo r makin g (almost ) annua l observation s o f Venu s a t o r nea r th e beginnin g o f th e rain y season . W e hav e furthe r note d tha t Templ e 2 2 i s bedecke d wit h ornamentatio n symboli c o f th e rain s an d contain s image s o f th e youn g maiz e go d a s wel l a s Venu s glyphs . W e conclud e tha t th e principa l purpos e o f th e templ e wa s t o hos t cere - monie s fo r th e annua l comin g o f th e rain s an d th e growt h o f th e ne w maiz e i n associatio n wit h th e Venu s phenomen a describe d above . Post - conques t survival s o f thes e ancien t rituals , fo r th e mos t par t transmute d b y Christianity , occu r i n celebration s centere d o n St . Mark' s Day , Apri l 25
, an d Hol y Cros s Day , Ma y 3 .

Evidenc

e fo r th e existenc e o f a Venus-maize-rai n comple x o n th e

Mexica

n platea u an d i n th e May a lowland s ha s bee n presented . I n thi s comple x Venu s i s attribute d wit h th e discover y o f maiz e an d securin g i t fo r th e people . Th e rai n god s ar e give n responsibilit y fo r it s growt h an d sustenance . Venu s appear s a s a hig h go d wit h th e rai n god s i n a subservien t positio n bearin g a mor e direc t relationshi p wit h man . Th e functio n o f Venu s i n thi s contex t i s reflecte d cosmologicall y b y it s jour - ne y t o th e nort h precedin g th e onse t o f th e rain y season . Thi s cosmi c voyag e o f Venu s ma y b e equivalen t t o Quetzalcoatl' s carryin g o f th e firs t grain s o f maiz e t o Tamoanchan . Indeed , th e rain s ar e connecte d wit h th e nort h i n May a though t an d Tamoancha n i s "th e lan d o f rai n an d mist " (Davie s 1977
: 104)
. Furthermore , i t i s relate d i n th e hym n t o Cen - 23
7 teotl, the Aztec maize god, that he was born in Tamoanchan (Caso 1958: 76)
. Finally , Tamoancha n i s referre d t o i n th e son g dedicate d t o th e Azte c feas t o f Atamalqualoy a (Davie s 1977
: 103
) whic h i s associate d wit h th e rejuvenatio n o f th e maiz e an d th e completio n o f th e 8-yea r Venus-sola r cycle . Thoug h w e hav e concentrate d o n relatin g Venu s t o Templ e 2 2 an d th e agricultura l cycle , i t shoul d no t b e assume d tha t w e ar e denyin g th e existenc e o r importanc e o f simila r sola r relationships . W e hav e commente d o n th e sola r alignmen t determine d b y th e windo w o f Templ e 22
. W e ma y als o not e tha t th e 8-da y interva l fro m Apri l 2 5 t o Ma y 3 , whic h w e hav e associate d wit h th e comin g o f th e rains , include s th e significan t celestia l even t o f sola r zenit h passag e o n Apri l 30
. Moreover , a n apparen t dualit y embracin g th e su n an d Venu s i n May a mytholog y i s suggeste d b y th e bicephali c monste r ove r th e inne r doorwa y o f Templ e 22
, fo r on e o f it s head s i s marke d wit h th e symbo l o f th e su n whil e th e othe r i s marke d wit h th e symbo l o f Venus . Suc h a dualit y ma y wel l b e a consequenc e o f th e 8-yea r Venus-sola r cycle , a s muc h a functio n o f th e su n a s o f Venus . Ou r emphasi s o n th e Venu s aspec t o f thi s dualit y i s justifie d sinc e th e importanc e o f Venu s i n ancien t Maya n agricultura l rite s doe s no t see m t o hav e bee n recognized . Th e cosmological-mythi c rol e o f Venu s whic h w e hav e describe d ma y accoun t i n a larg e par t fo r th e importanc e o f tha t plane t i n th e Mesoamerica n world . 23
8 Table: Apparitions of Venus in Temple 22 correlated with great northerly extreme s o f th e planet . Dates of Venus Visibility Yea r (A.D. ) Using diagonal sightin g schem e Using main axis t o jam b limit s Date of northerly extreme an d cycl e ( A o r B ) 70
0 2 2 Apr -- 22 May 7 May -12 May 70
1 2 Ma y (A ) 70
2 2 Apr - 2 2 Ap r 7 Apr-12 Apr 70
3 1 2 Ma y - 6 June 22 May - 27 May 70
4 1 1 Ma y (B ) 70

5 16 Apr -6 May 21 Apr -- 26 Apr

70

8 30 Apr - 20 May 5 May -10 May

70
9 3 0 Ap r (A ) 71

0 31 Mar - 20 Apr 7 Apr-12 Apr

71
1 1 0 Ma y - 4 June 20 May - 30 May 71
2 1 4 May(B ) 71
3 1 4 Ap r - 4 May 24 Apr -- 29 Apr 71
6 2 8 Ap r - 18 May 8 May -13 May 71
7 2 8 Ap r (A ) 71

8 29 Mar - 18 Apr 8 Apr -13 Apr

72
4 1 Ma y - - 2 1 Ma y 6 May -• 11 May 72
5 2 6 Ap r (A ) 72
6 1 Apr -21 Apr 6 Apr - 11 Apr 72

7 il May - 5 June 21 May - 26 May

72
8 1 0 Ma y (B ) 72

9 15 Apr - 5 May 20 Apr -- 23 Apr

73
2 2 9 Ap r - 19 May 4 May - • 9 May 73
3 2 9 Ap r (A ) 73

4 30 Mar - 19 Apr 4 Apr - 9 Apr

73
5 9 Ma y - - 3 Jun e 19 May - 24 May 73
6 Plane t doe s no t quit e attai n grea t extrem e 73
7 74
0 2 7 Ap r - 17 May 4 May -• 10 May 74
1 2 7 Ap r (A ) 74
2 2 8 Ma r - 17 Apr 3 Apr-11 Apr 74

3 12 May - 1 June 17 May - 27 May

74

4 11 May (third cycle)

74

5 11 Apr - 11 May 21 Apr

• - 26 Apr 74

8 25 Apr - 20 May 5 May -- 10 May

74

9 30 Apr (A)

75

0 26 Mar - 15 Apr 5 Apr -10 Apr

75
1 1 0 Ma y - 30 May 20 May - 25 May 75
2 9 Ma y (thir d cycle ) 75

3 10 Apr - 29 Apr 19 Apr - 24 Apr

75

6 28 Apr - 18 May 3 May -- 8 May

23
9

Dates of Venus Visibility

Yea r (A.D. ) Using diagonal sightin g schem e Using main axis t o jam b limit s Date of northerly extreme an d cycl e ( A o r B ) 75
7 3 Ma y (A ) 75

8 29 Mar -

1 8 Apr 3 Apr -8 Apr 75
9 8 Ma y -- 2 June 18 May - 28 May 76
0 1 0 Ma y (B ) 76
1 1 2 Ap r - 2 May 17 Apr - 22 Apr 76
4 2 6 Ap r - 21 May 4 May -- 8 May 76
5 6 Ma y (A ) 76
6 2 7 Ma r - 16 Apr 4 Apr -8 Apr 76

7 11 May - 3

1 May 16 May - 21 May 76
8 1 0 Ma y (B ) 76
9 1 0 Ap r - 30 Apr 18 Apr • - 23 Apr 77
2 2 4 Ap r - 19 May 2 May -- 7 May 77
3 4 Ma y (A ) 77

4 25 Mar - 14 Apr 4 Apr - 9 Apr

77
5 9 Ma y -- 29 May 16 May - 21 May 77
6 8 May(B ) 77
7 8 Ap r - 1 Ma y 18 Apr - 23 Apr 78

0 22 Apr - 12 May 2 May -- 7 May

78
1 2 7 Ap r (A ) 78

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