Martin Luther King, Jr and Malcolm X - IS MUNI

51087_10Mater_s_Thesis_ProchazkovaMichaela.pdf

MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X:

Search for the Direction of the Civil Rights

Movement

Master Thesis

Brno 2019

Supervisor: Author:

Michael George, M.A.

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this master thesis and that I have not used any sources other than those identified as references. Č vypracovala Č, s

ĤĤ souladu s Ĝ

ČČČ

ĤČČĜĤ.

Brno, 25. 3. 2019

Acknowledgment

I would like to thank my supervisor, Michael George, M.A., for his time, help, guidance, patience and advice. Also, I would like to thank Erick Daniel Worthington. Last, I would like to thank my parents and family for their support.

Annotation

This master thesis discusses lives of two African American activists, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X, in the United States of America. Their lives are described from their childhood and then the main emphasis is put on their involvement in the Civil Rights Movement which later turned to the Black Power movement. In the last part of the thesis, elements of the similarity of these two African American leaders are examined.

Key words

Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, Civil Rights Movement, Black Power movement

Anotace

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Lutherem Kingem, Jr. a ivoty Č

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Power. V Č

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Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, , Black

Power

Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X: Search for the Direction of the Civil Rights Movement. Brno: : Michael

George, M.A.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 7

1. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. ................................................................................. 9

1.1 Early Childhood ................................................................................................. 9

1.2 Studies and Marriage ........................................................................................ 12

1.3 Pre-Civil Rights Movement Activities ............................................................. 18

2. MALCOLM X ......................................................................................................... 23

2.1 Early Childhood ............................................................................................... 23

2.2 Boston and Later Childhood ............................................................................. 29

2.3 Prison ................................................................................................................ 32

2.4 Pre-Civil Rights Movement Activities ............................................................. 35

3. THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND BLACK POWER ............................... 40

3.1 The Civil Rights Movement ............................................................................. 40

3.1.1 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka .................................................. 40

3.1.2 Montgomery Bus Boycott ......................................................................... 41

3.1.3 The Little Rock Nine ................................................................................. 42

3.1.4 The Greensboro Four and The Sit-in Movement ...................................... 43

3.1.5 Ruby Bridges and the New Orleans School Integration ........................... 44

3.1.6 Freedom Rides .......................................................................................... 45

3.1.7 Demonstrations in Birmingham ................................................................ 47

3.1.8 March on Washington and the Civil Rights Act ....................................... 48

3.1.9 Selma to Montgomery March ................................................................... 50

3.2 Black Power ..................................................................................................... 54

3.2.1 Malcolm X and his Actions in Late 1950s and Early 1960s ..................... 54

3.2.2 Watts Riots ................................................................................................ 55

3.2.3 Assassination of Malcolm X ..................................................................... 56

3.2.4 Black Panther Party ................................................................................... 57

3.2.5 Loving v. Virginia ..................................................................................... 59

3.2.6 Detroit Riots .............................................................................................. 60

3.2.7 ...................................... 61

3.2.8 Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. .................................................. 62

4. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. AND MALCOLM X: DIFFERENT BUT

SIMILAR ........................................................................................................................ 64

4.1 Injustice ............................................................................................................ 65

4.2 Racial Integration ............................................................................................. 66

4.3 Speeches ........................................................................................................... 70

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 73

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 74

Printed Books .............................................................................................................. 74

Online Journals ............................................................................................................ 77

Online Websites .......................................................................................................... 84

7

INTRODUCTION

Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X were undoubtedly among the main African American leaders who determined the direction of the Civil Rights Movement and the events that followed in the United States of America in the 1950s and 1960s. They were able to gather thousands of African American citizens to air their experiences on the numerous racial injustices that they faced at the hands of the white Americans, particularly in the South of the country. Even though many differences in Martin Luther is to find similarities between these two leaders. In the first chapter of this master thesis, the childhood and early life of Martin Luther King, Jr. will be described. Moreover, the chapter will also focus on his studies and a preaching career up to the date when he started being actively involved in the Civil Rights Movement. Therefore, everything that happened during his life before he became an

African American activist will be depicted.

Similarly, the second chapter will discuss an early life of Malcolm X. Many struggles that happened to him during his childhood will be specified there. Next, his time spent in prison and also his changes in religious beliefs will be discussed. Also, the beginning of activist career and his view on the problematics discussed in this thesis will be included. The third chapter will focus on the Civil Rights Movement and also on the Black Power movement that arose later. In this chapter, many cases and events of African American citizens from the Civil Rights Movement as well as fighting for justice will be discussed, such as The Montgomery Bus Boycott and The Little Rock Nine. Also, the March on Washington and The Selma to Montgomery Marches, after which the Civil Rights Act of 8

1964 and the Civil Rights Voting Act of 1965 were signed by President Lyndon B.

Johnson, will be covered. Moreover, the events contained in the Black Power movement, which was inspired by the acts of Malcolm X, will be portrayed. Lastly, the assassination of both leaders will be described in this chapter. The main aim of the last chapter is to find the ideological, philosophical and even spiritual similarities in the activism between Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X, as the two men are mostly known by historians for their differences. Therefore, the three main themes which will be explored in this chapter and in which similarities can be found are the views towards elevating injustice, racial integration and delivering speeches. 9

1. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

1.1 Early Childhood

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was born on January 15, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia as the second of three children. The first of the children was a girl, Willie Christine, born in grandfather, the Reverend Alfred Daniel Williams, established Ebenezer Baptist Church, and later, father, Michael King, made this church one of the greatest in Atlanta (Lewis 4). When his son was born, Michael King and his wife Alberta Christine named him after the father, Michael King, Jr. After the Reverend Alfred Daniel Williams, who was a pastor in the above-mentioned church, died, Michael King took his place and became the pastor of the church. At that time, Michael King changed his name after the German reformer, who established Protestantism, to Martin Luther King. T changed to Martin Luther King, Jr. (Fleming 3). Martin Luther King, Jr. was not the first political activist in the family. As Professor Lewis, the author of King: A Critical Biography, Reverend Alfred Daniel Williams, was a charismatic person and one of the African American people in the community completely independent of the white people. Therefore, he had a significant role when it came to relationship between white and African American members of the community. Reverend Williams was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (the NAACP) (4-5). The NAACP is an association established in 1909 to protect the civil rights of the African American people living in the USA. Also, this association was founded to stop injustice and lynching of African American people by the white citizens of the USA. Once this 10 organization was established, it became one of the largest and the strongest associations to protect the African Americans (Jonas 2). Moreover, Reverend Williams and other well-known members of the community made it possible for the first African American high school to be built in Atlanta. After Reverend Williams died, KiNot only that he became a pastor at Ebenezer Baptist Church, h Republican and a donator for Atlanta youth activities (Lewis 5). Martin Luther King, Jr. experienced segregation at a really young age, even when he was only six years old. He had a white friend and, on their very first day of school, King parents had to explain to young Martin how things really were in the USA those days, that he had to go to school for African American people and his white friend had to go to school for only white people. This was a surprise for King as in Auburn Avenue, the place they li that Martin Luther King, Jr. encountered Jim Crow laws, which demanded the white and colored people to stay in separated areas, not mixing in one place (Fleming 3-5). In the same way, in The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr., King shows his disappointment that he went through at that time with wor (7) supported with a story of when King and his father went to buy shoes and were asked to leave the place where they sat and move to the back of the shop where there were other seats. responded by saying that if they could not sit on seats which they had chosen, that they would not buy any shoes from the shop, and then they left. King admits that such situations encouraged him to act in a similar way later in his career. The segregation in Atlanta followed the African American community at every turn (7-8). 11 Moreover, Professor Lewis adds a story, when young Martin was in a store with shoes and a white woman came to him and hit his face saying that he had stepped on her foot, however he had never seen the woman before (12).

The first attempt happened after

was injured, which was caused by his brother Alfred Daniel. This traumatic event caused King so much trouble that he jumped out of a window. At the age of 12, he once again attempted suicide by jumping out of a window. This time it was because of the death of his grandmother, Mrs. Williams, who died because of a heart attack. Because of these traumatic experiences, Professor Lewis suggests that it is visible that King could have had some psychological problems (Lewis 13). However, these events concerning the death of his grandmother are not mentioned by King himself in his autobiography (King and Carson 7). King had the ability to speak in front of public at a young age. When he attended Booker T. Washington High School, he took part in a debating team and also went to compete in oratorical competitions financed by African Americans. While at one of the events held , and he won the contest. On the way home while in the bus to Atlanta, King and his teacher, who accompanied him, experienced a direct act of segregation, when they were asked to leave their seats and stand the whole way home, which made King very furious. This affair could never be erased -9). Later on in life, before attending college, King had a summer job on a tobacco farm in Simsbury, Connecticut. This was his first time experiencing the differences between the American South and the American North. He did not encounter any signs of segregation that summer in the North. King proves this with a letter written to his father, where he 12 mentions that all the white citizens were acting very friendly to him (King and Carson

11-12).

1.2 Studies and Marriage

In 1944 at the age of 15, King was accepted to Morehouse College. This was the same college that his father and grandfather studied at as well. It was possible to skip some years in high school and enter college if a student passed an entrance test, which King did. In Morehouse College, he started studying medicine, however, later he decided to change his major to sociology. (Lewis 18-20). During his college studies, King was not really sure what profession he wanted to do. At first, he thought of being a doctor or a lawyer, he did not think about becoming a minister at church, like his father. However, in his last year of college, and after taking several courses that opened up his mind to the idea, King decided to join the ministry (King and Carson 15-16). Sharing such news with his parents, King was invited by his father to Ebenezer Baptist Church, where he was supposed to deliver a sermon. King did so, and , the minister of the church, that King danced during the sermon, which was in ef, King had to apology for acting this way and did so at church the following Sunday (Fleming 13). Nevertheless, King graduated college at the age of 19 and right after that, in 1948, he started attending Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania (King and Carson 15-17). While studying in Chester, King was aware of the stereotypes that were connected to being African American, such as being late, loud, messy and dirty. Because of that, for some time, he had become serious about how other people around the place saw him, therefore, he did not laugh and tried to be aware of not doing anything that would connect 13 him with the stereotypes (Lewis 28). Moreover, Professor Lewis adds, that even though King was consciously aware of his behaviors and attitudes, he strove to never deviate from such behaviors around any of his peers, white people included (28). Being a good and productive student helped King to get to know some very important people. For example, he visited Dr. Sankey L. Blanton, president of Crozer Theological Seminary, and his wife at their house and talked with Dr. Blanton about theologians and philosophers that Martin was concerned about. Next, thanks to Professor George W. In his autobiography, King mentions that during winter 1949 he was reading books written by Karl Marx and also did some more research on Marx and Lenin, because he wanted to understand why so many people supported communism and why it seemed attractive to them. After that, some of the things that King realized were, for example, that in communism, there is no God, which he disagreed with, as King was a Christian and believed in God. Also, King did not like the idea of no freedom of a personality. King suggests that taking freedom away from a person is like giving the person a status of an immoral thing. On the other hand, knowing that communism does not bring anything good, King realized that it was the struggle of the lower class to become accepted and heard that that was what made communism rise. However, King spotted a problem that was in a society about which Marx described, the gap between poor and wealthy citizens which was also in a capitalist system. King knew that even in the USA wealth needed to be shared more consciously. Even though he found some good remarks when studying, King posits that communism did not really help as it resulted in new classes and inequity (King and Carson 19-22). 14 It was while in Philadelphia attending a lecture by the president of Howard University, Dr. Mordecai W. Johnson who had visited India, that King became interested in life and teachings of Indian politician and spiritual leader Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi helped India become independent from the Great Britain after he organized marches and demonstrations where no violence was used. Gandhi worked with an idea of Soul Force, the power of love and truth, with which he was able to achieve a change in the country. Dr. Johnson believed that such an idea could help the USA get rid of the racial discrimination that was happening in the country (Fleming 13-15). Lewis adds, that after Montgomery boycott when the idea of Soul Force would appear as a way of fighting for civil rights of African American citizens of the USA (34-35). It could be said that Martin Luther King, Jr. experienced the first attempt of assassination while staying in Crozer Theological Seminary. A student from North Carolina, a well- threatened King. Knowing the power of words, King talked to the student and tried to prevent him from shooting until other students could come and help. After this event, King did not want the student government to punish the student, therefore, he apologized to King and after all, these two men ended up becoming friends (Fleming 13). King graduated from Crozer Theological Seminary in May 1951. He admits, that before continuing his studies, he was thinking about teaching at a college or a school of religion. However, he decided to continue his studies and for his Doctorate he chose to study at Boston University (King and Carson 27). Because he was the best student in the class, King received a scholarship and could choose the school to study at himself (Fleming 15). There were two main reasons why King chose Boston University. First, Dr. Edgar S. 15

Brightman, a member of faculty, and therefore

at Crozer, who had a significant impact on him, had studied at Boston University as well (King and Carson 27-28). In the summer 1951, King preached at Ebenezer Baptist Church, so his father could relax. In September, King drove to Massachusetts in a brand-new Chevrolet that he had received as a graduation present from his father. He was traveling there to study at Boston In his autobiography King explains that it was never easy to find accommodation for him when he was trying to study somewhere other than his house. He went to look at many places that were for rent, however, when the flat owners realized that King was an African American, they told him that the flat had already been rented (King and Carson 31). King also mentions in his autobiography that it was because of the university where he studied his Doctoral program that he realized the importance of nonviolence (30). At Boston University, King studied philosophy under Edgar S. Brightman, and later, when Mr. Brightman died, he was replaced by L. Harold DeWolf. Both of these men were happy about the work that King did during his studies (King and Carson 31). Lewis adds, that King also took philosophical courses at Harvard, apart from the studies in Boston, to extend his knowledge (38). During his philosophical studies, King encountered a positive social philosophy, which suggested that a nonviolent way is the best way of acting for oppressed people when fighting for their rights and justice (King and Carson 32). During his stay in Boston, apart from studies, King also wished to meet some girls, but he did not really like those who he used to meet in the city. It was in 1952, that he was thinking about going out with a girl from the southern United States. It was suggested to 16 him to go and see Coretta Scott, a graduate of Antioch College, who at that time was studying Voice at The New England Conservatory of Music. Coretta Scott was the daughter of a successful owner of a shop in Marion, Alabama. King wanted to meet her even after it was said to him that she was somewhat shy when meeting new men and that she may act arrogantly towards him because he was a minister of the gospel (Lewis 40).

Not paying much attention to such advice and

telephone number and called her, asking her to meet him. When Scott first learned that King was a Baptist preacher, she hesitated a little because she did not like the preachers that she had met before. She thought that they were selfish. However, she decided to give it a try and therefore King invited Scott for a lunch (Fleming 16). In his autobiography, King describes the phone call that he made and the words that he used when inviting nd pick you up. I have a green Chevy that usually takes ten 35)
During their lunch, King told Scott that she was exactly the person who he wanted to marry because she had all qualities that he wanted in a wife: character, intelligence, personality, and beauty. Scott was very surprised that King said such things on their first date. She thought that since they had just met that it was far too early to even think about marriage. On the other hand, Scott must have been impressed with King because she decided to see him again (Fleming 16-17). Moreover, King says that during this first meeting, they talked about racial and economic injustice. This was when he realized that Coretta was actively involved in movements that helped fight these injustices (King and

Carson 35).

17 Spending time together, going for walks, and attending different events such as concerts, King was very concerned about getting Coretta to become his wife. He told her, that he was looking for a woman who would be a housewife and a supporter at Unfortunately, Coretta did not like this idea because she had her own dreams of what she wanted to be. Because she studied Voice, she wanted to become a singer at concerts. Knowing this situation, King did not give up and later Coretta Scott decided that her love for King was more important and finally beca Lewis adds that at first, Kings father did not want his son to marry a woman like Coretta Scott. He wanted his son to marry a woman from a rich family, with social connections, and someone that he had found for King. However, Coretta Scott could not be compared with this woman in the qualities that he expected his wife to have (42). father tried to find a way of annulling the prepared marriage accusing King of spending too much time with Coretta and not focusing enough on his studies. However, after King assured his father that he would finish his studies first, and only after that marry Coretta, Ironically, the couple married before King finished his Doctorate, on June 18, 1953 in Marion, Alabama (Fleming 17). After the marriage, King and his wife returned to Boston. King had to continue his studies finished and then submitted his dissertation in 1955 (Lewis 43-44). Finally, on June 5 of that same year, King received his Doctorate in Systematic Theology from Boston

University (King and Carson 30).

18

1.3 Pre-Civil Rights Movement Activities

While finishing his studies and before becoming a Ph.D., King was offered a teaching position at Morehouse College. However, King denied the offer and decided to serve as a minister as many academic people that he respected did as well, preaching before teaching. King had yet to find a job and applied for preaching positions in some churches around the area. He received many replies and accepted a preaching position at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, where he knew that the members were mostly African American citizens with some kind of education, including doctors, nurses, professor, etc. at a and took the position anyways. King had already known, that he did not want to do the same actions as his father and decided to follow his own path (Fleming 18). After discussing the first date to preach at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, King left Atlanta, Georgia and reached Montgomery, Alabama after a 4-hour journey in January

1954. On the day of delivering the sermon, King describes how strange situation that was

for him. He was used to preach at his fathe brand-new experience for King, as it was the first time ever that he was supposed to give a sermon as the main pastor of the church. Therefore, King was thinking about the best way of reaching the audience with his speech (King and Carson 42). After all, King realized what might be the best and told to himself, as written in his autobiography, that: will be right. Remember you are a channel of the gospel and not -43) After his first sermon was given at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, it was so successful that King was asked by members of the church to stay and continue preaching. Therefore, 19 he would have to move to Montgomery. However, he was not sure whether he and Coretta were ready and prepared for moving back to the South. At that time, the topic of racism and segregation in Montgomery became huge and more African Americans started discussing the topic of injustice (Jackson 55). Moreover, in his autobiography, King describes how difficult it was for him to decide what job to accept, and especially, where to work. King shows his worries concerning preaching in a church in the South of the United States, where segregation, which he hated so much from his childhood, played an enormous role in every-day lives of the African American citizens. Moreover, King had to take his wife and future family in consideration when deciding what to do. Therefore, he discussed this issue with his wife, Coretta, whether possibly raising children in the South, where for both of them there were more disadvantages then advantages due to segregation, would be possible for them. Also, Coretta knew that she would not have many career opportunities as a singer in the South as she would have in the North. Despite all of the disadvantages, they finally decided to move to the South as they felt that they had a moral duty to go back to the place where they were raised, their original home (King and Carson 44). As a result, in the fall of 1954, at the age of 25, King and his wife moved to Montgomery, Alabama and King became a full-time pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. King was preparing and writing his sermons in advance, however, the audience was amazed, that he was able to deliver 30- or 40-minute speeches from memory without using any notes. At first, the way King preached was similar to what he knew from Ebenezer Baptist Church where he preached alongside with his father, no clapping nor shouting. However, at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, where King was the pastor, he tried to include such activities, and after all, he saw that it worked and played its role, as he knew that for the 20 African Americans it was a source of getting away with anger that they felt due to the injustice and the way the white citizens acted towards them (Fleming 20-21). Even though at first King did not consider himself being an activist, when preaching at Dexter, he delivered sermons that would make feel African American citizens positive and hoping for better future without injustice words could make them challenge such actions. In his speeches, King used sentences such as that he is there to I have felt with Jesus that the spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he hath anointed me to preach the gospel to the poor, to heal the brokenhearted, to preach 58)
Staying in Montgomery, where being an African American was not a pleasant experience, any evidence of segregation, as she stayed in colleges in the North, where she lived alongside white people in peace. Moving to the South meant that Jim Crow laws and segregation would be part of her every-day life. She knew that when she would need to move from one place to another, she would have to sit in the back of the buses. Even after knowing all this, she supported her husband and after being introduced to the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church members, she believed in such service to make a change in the society and help African American people in the community (King and Carson 46). King realized while delivering sermons that in his audience at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, there were still some African Americans who did not want to change the way that the white people in the community looked at them. These African Americans believed that in order for them to be successful and maintain their well-being, they needed 21
to accept the way that white citizens wanted them to be. That is the reason that while giving speeches to his congregation, King emphasized that fighting for justice was important. Moreover, he called the white people, who were racists, hypocrites. King made it clear to his audience in the church, that he would not step back and would do everything that was possible to create a better future for African American citizens (Jackson 59-60). Recognizing the issues that were happening in the society, King decided to start being politically active and demanded every member of his church to become a registered voter and also a member of the NAACP, which King entered himself. King wanted the African American people to be aware of the national elections. Moreover, King wanted them to be able to gather so that they could discuss the major problems occurring in the United States, such as social, political and economic difficulties (King and Carson 47). King was also a member of a newly formed association called the Citizens Coordinating Committee. This organization was created in order to connect all the citizens of Montgomery and let all the groups cooperate together. However, the Citizens Coordinating Committee did not last long. The reason that led the organization to vanish was that the members of the groups participating were not active enough and the cohesion did not really appear in there. In other words, it was clear, that different African American groups were not able to work on the same project even though they were fighting for the same thing. They could not become united in a chase for their civil rights (Jackson 69). Furthermore, in his autobiography, King adds, that there was also an organization called the Alabama Council on Human Relations which included people of all races. This association tried to provide everybody living in Alabama with the same and equal opportunities. King was elected as vice-president of this organization and even though there were not many members in the organization, King highlighted the importance of 22
communication between races that the Alabama Council on Human Relations provided. On the contrary, there were some people that were not happy about King taking part in such an organization because they thought that being a member of the NAACP and the Alabama Council on Human Relations did not really go together, in other words, they thought that these organizations felt that integration could come only through legislation and court action - the chief emphasis of the NAACP. Many white people felt that integration could come only through education on 48-49). King states, that both above mentioned ways were necessary in the fight for civil rights, which was about to recrudesce with the Montgomery Bus Boycott (King and Carson 49). 23

2. MALCOLM X

2.1 Early Childhood

Even before Malcolm X was born, his family was threatened by members of the Ku Klux Klan. In The Autobiography of Malcolm X as told to Alex Haley, Malcolm describes that the Ku Klux Klan did not like the political activity of his father, Reverend Earl Little, who was a Baptist minister and an organizer for Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) which was led by Marcus Aurelius Garvey (3). The UNIA is an organization that was established in 1917 in New York that supports African Americans living in the United States of America to return back to Africa. Its founder, Garvey, proclaimed the 20th century. He wanted to make African Americans proud of their background (Leeuwen). As Doctor Leeuwen, author of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association Garvey's UNIA was bigger than the Civil Rights

Movement.th century.

Malcolm Little, later known as Malcolm X, was born on May 19, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska. Eventually he moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin for a short period of time and finally settled in Lansing, Michigan (X and Haley 4-5). Malcolm had a very complicated childho house and the family was forced to build a new one. The situation in the family was not so pleasurable. Malcolm was raised together with his brothers and sisters whom his father frequently beat, mostly the older ones. However, for Malcolm, as he was the whitest child of the family, he was not punished by his father. Malcolm mentions that the reason why his father did not beat him could be because most of the African Americans were influenced by white men, saying that the lighter the skin the better, and therefore this 24
-7). On the n lighter, however, Malcolm describes that his mother approached him verbally saying:

Religion a

passion for Baptism did not affect Malcolm the same way as it influenced his father. Malcolm asserts that in his childhood, up to the age of 20, he had almost no respect for anybody who was a religious person (X and Haley 7). Moreover, being part of the UNIA meant to follow the direction of the movement. Garvey, the founder of the UNIA, believed that for African Americans to become independent they should be able to produce everything that they needed, so that they could completely depend on themselves and not on white people. This way of living was so called Black Nationalism (Leeuwen). wanting to embrace this independent lifestyle, shared the practice with their family members. First, the children in the family were given land for gardening, where they would grow different types of fruits. Once the fruits were fully grown, they would share them with the other members of the family. The next characteristic of the UNIA was Africentrism (DeCaro 42-43), which stands for the unity of people with African roots with their culture and traditions and the African continent despite their differences (Tolliver 59-61). Malcolm also learned what Black Internationalism meant because of his mother, who was different from other black people in their community. This was because she originally came from the Caribbean. Therefore, Malcolm learned the differences between African Americans who have different backgrounds and roots. Moreover, the family were readers of press such as Negro World and some other 25
newspapers from the Caribbean. They also read news about situations in the USA, so the children were exposed to both, Africentrism and Black Internationalism (DeCaro 43). When Malcolm was 6 years old, his father died, and it was believed by the people of the community that he was killed by the Black Legion (X and Haley 13). The Black Legion was a group of people who, similar to Ku Klux Klan, wore black hoods and clothes and were against Communists, African Americans etc. Members of the Black Legion were known for their night rides (Morris 3). The night riders were different groups of people, such as Ku Klux Klan and the Black Legion, which shared a similar aim - to use the frightening of black people as a means of white domination (Fry 3). After the murder of 1 mother to continue living, especially with the hardships that she faced being responsible for the children over the next few years. She also struggled with a lot of people trying to confiscate the land on which the family lived (19). At the same time, the family started struggling financially. In other words, they did not have enough finances to buy food. Malcolm would often walk around Lansing, hoping to find some food that had been displaced or thrown away, just so that his family could eat. Sometimes, as the situation of the family was known to their neighbors, Malcolm would be invited by some families to supper, with their vision of helping him. He also frequently stole some food, which later would be the reason why welfare workers wanted to take him away from his mother (X and Haley 17-18). on, the family started attending services at this church which the children liked, mainly because of the food that was served there. During this time, the welfare workers tried to 26
her was that she did not accept pork that was offered to her by her neighbors. They did not understand, even after it was explained to them that the mother and the family had become members of the Seventh Day Adventist church, and that members of this church did not eat pork (X and Haley 19-21). As mentioned above, Malcolm was stealing food as well as other things from shops in Lansing. He was caught many times and as a result, he was taken away from his mother and siblings, so his brothers and sisters did not learn such bad behavior from him. Luckily for Malcolm, he was fostered into the house of a neighborhood family that he had already known the Gohanna family (Rummel and Wagner 14). In his autobiography, Malcolm posits how his mother was getting mentally weaker over time started having mental problems because of the environment in which she and the children lived and moreover because of the problems that were connected to being a single mother. Eventually, she was sent to the Kalamazoo Mental Hospital and the children were put into different families around the area (Brennan). Malcolm X was the first of the children separated from his mother. Later on, all of his siblings were put into new homes in January

1939, when Malcolm was only 13 years old (Wainstock 8).

relationships and none of the children wanted to be separated from his/her siblings. Malcolm points out how his younger brothers and sisters admired him in the same way in which he admired his older siblings. On the other hand, Malcolm admits that when he was taken to the Gohanna family, he was sad for leaving his real family. However, at the same time he was happy that the place he went to stay was the Gohanna family and no 27
other place. In other words, his life in his new home became finer (X and Haley 22). For example, he began fishing and hunting rabbits with the new family and family friends. This is described as some of the activities that they did and enjoyed together (X and Haley

23-24).

While staying with the Gohanna family, Malcolm was exposed to the third religion of his early life. The first was Baptism, as his father was a Baptist preacher, the second was the death, and later, he stayed with the Gohanna family -

Haley 23).

As Boisen explains in his work Economic Distress and Religious Experience: A study of the Holly Rollers, mystical religion. They belong to the from other holiness sects the holy rollers believe that in order to be saved it is also During this time, influenced by his brother, Malcolm tried to participate in some boxing matches, however, he was not good at it, he lost twice, and because of that he did not fight again. Later, he started misbehaving at school, he had a lack of respect for his teachers and he did not really care about his knowledge or education. For this reason, he was taken away from the Gohanna family and was sent to a detention home and was later sent to a reform school (X and Haley 27-29). 28
The detention home that Malcolm stayed in was in Mason, Michigan and it was operated by Mr. and Mrs. Swerleins. The Swerleins let Malcolm stay in a separate room on his own and to show them appreciation, he did a lot of chores around the house. They liked him so much that they refused to send him to a reform school and registered him in Mason Junior High School. Studying at this high school, where majority of students were white, was not easy for Malcolm. Some of the students said rude comments to him during different occasions (Wainstock 8). Even though some people at school did not act nicely towards him, Malcolm was selected as president by his classmates at the end of the seventh grade, mainly due to the fact that he had excellent grades. (X and Haley 36). hospital to visit their mother, who was still suffering from mental illness. Later on, during the same summer, Ella made it possible for Malcolm to visit her in her home in Boston, Massachusetts. Ella lived in a black neighborhood where Malcolm experienced, for the first time ever, living around people with the same roots and background as himself. Later, when he moved back to Mason, where majority of people were white, he did not feel happy about staying in such place anymore because he had already encountered life with he knew that nobody in Mason would understand or care about his feelings concerning this issue of belonging. Therefore, he did not want to stay in Mason anymore and asked his sister Ella whether he could stay with her in Boston. After much work, she succes to Boston with the Michigan authorities, which meant that Malcolm could leave Mason and finally stay with his sister at her place (Wainstock 9-10). 29

2.2 Boston and Later Childhood

When Malcolm arrived in Boston and moved i

time to explore the city before he would start searching for a job. During this time, he noticed that there were many African Americans who were considered high-class, unlike some other African Americans who lived in a ghetto. Despite the high-class African Americans, Malcolm mentions, that they all must have come from a place where they had some inferior jobs (X and Haley 45-46). Even though Malcolm lived in the part of the city where there were high-class African Americans, he preferred staying with those that were living in the ghettos. Malcolm never wanted to be a person who would act superior to the African Americans living in these ghettos (X and Haley 49). One of the first jobs that Malcolm had was a soda fountain clerk in a drug store. It was his sister who got him this job. It was in this drug store that Malcolm met Laura, a well- educated African American girl (X and Haley 67-69). Malcom and Laura got to know each other and after it was clear that they liked one another, he invited her out for a dance. Unfortunately, during the dance, he started dancing and talking with another girl. Laura was not happy about it and she stopped talking to him (X and Haley 70-73). After some time, Laura came to the drug store and asked Malcolm to take her to a dance event again. He agreed and dancing. They danced really well and were called The Queen and The King of the dance. They enjoyed the attention that was given to them by the people who were watching. It could have been a nice event for both, Laura and Malcolm, if only Malcolm had not spotted another girl a white woman with blond hair called Sophia (X and Haley 74-76). As Professor Hart, author of Black Religion: Malcolm X, Julius Lester, and Jan Willis writes, Ella did not like Sophia, because Malcolm had ended the 30
relationship with Laura because of this new white girl. Professor Hart also suggests that Ella was ecause those days in some places, especially in the South of the USA, it was common that white men lynched black men for spending time with white women (30).

At the age of seventeen, Malcolm

that passed through New York, New Haven and Hartford. Malcolm was able to save a lot money while working on the train and he eventually moved to Harlem in New York. At this stage of his life, he came in contact with bad activities such as selling drugs, stealing, and some other crimes, including armed robbery (Hart 30-31). Malcolm did not only sell drugs but was taking them as well. Professor Hart asserts that one of the reasons why Malcolm later left Harlem was that he was involved in gambling, which he was not very good at and did not pay very well attentions to because of the drug influence on his mind. After one particular game, Malcolm was accused of stealing money and the easiest way for him to not get into trouble was to leave New York, which he did and decided to move back to Boston (Hart 32-33). However, leaving New York did not change Malcolm much. He admits that he smoked marijuana and used cocaine even while living in Boston. In addition, domestic violence was part of his life, he used to beat Sophia, who was at this time married to another man. She cheated on her husband who was a salesman and spent a lot of her time with Malcolm (X and Haley 146-147). When Malcolm became poor because of his cocaine and smoking addiction, he had to start thinking about a new way of obtaining money. For example, a house robbery, in which Malcolm included his friend, Shorty, and Shorty brought another friend named Rudy. Malcolm planned everything down to the smallest detail. He also included Sophia 31
and her sister, as he knew that they knew some places where it was possible to steal. Next, he met a person who would buy the property that Malcolm and his friends would steal. Finally, they discussed how exactly they would proceed, step by step (X and Haley 152-

155).

In his autobiography, Malcolm explains how exactly they were stealing property from houses. He shares the tools they used to open the doors, what were the cases when they would not enter the house and also what were the valuable things that they got the most money for. On one occasion, the police stopped the car that Malcolm and his friends were in and in which they were carrying the stolen property. However, Malcolm got out of the car before the police officer could get closer. He walked towards the police car and pretended that he was confused and lost. He asked the police officer for directions to get out of such a place where the police did not expect to see African Americans, which was also the reason why the police officer stopped the car that Malcolm and his friends were in in the first place (X and Haley 156-158). As mentioned above, Malcolm was addicted to drugs. For this reason, when his mind was influenced with negative impacts of drugs, he lost a connection to the problems in his life and he did not think about the consequences of such crimes that he did with his friends. Malcolm admits, that when using drugs, he did not really care or worry about the burglaries and even if he started to, he would stop thinking about it right away (Hart 36). It could be for his not caring that one day he decided to take a stolen watch from one of the robberies to a repair store. He did not expect that in every jewelry shop in Boston they had the description of the watch that was stolen. Two days later, when Malcolm came to pay for the repair, he was arrested by the police. Soon, the girls, Sophia and her sister, as well as Shorty were taken to the police station. Rudy was never caught as he ran out of 32
the city. It was at that time that Malcolm realized that he and Shorty would be judged differently than the girls, who were white and belonged to the upper-middle class (X and

Haley 161-163).

2.3 Prison

It was in 1946, when Malcolm and his friend Shorty were sentenced to between eight and ten years in prison. Sophia was sentenced to five years in prison, however, she did not stay in prison that long. After seven months, she was released (Hamilton 14). Malcolm and Shorty started their sentence at Charlestown State Prison in February 1946. In this prison, the conditions were horrible, and Malcolm did not want to stay there. So, he discovered a way to help ease the time he obtained drugs from the local guards (Hart 37).
While living in the prison, Malcolm realized that he had become an atheist. Professor (37) the life of that -38) Malcolm believed that staying in pr behavior, he got a nickname, Satan (X and Haley 167). While in prison, Malcolm befriended another inmate, Bimbi. Bimbi was the first person to attract Malcolm with the way that he spoke about religion, including atheism. It was because of Bimbi that Malcolm started reading books from the local library and taking correspondence courses in English, later he also took some courses in Latin (X and Haley

168-169).

The first attempt for Malcolm to become a member of the Nation of Islam happened in

1948, when his brother Philbert sent Malcolm a letter. However, Malcolm did not really

33
pay attention to it. He started taking this issue seriously only when the second letter other brother, Reginald (Hamilton 15-16). In the letter from Reginald, it was written that Malcolm should not eat pork nor smoke cigarettes. (X and Haley 169) Later, Malcolm revealed that it was not only his two brothers who had changed their views, but the rest of his siblings had also changed their religious directions and became members of the Nation of Islam. Furthermore, it was explained to Malcolm that there were some restrictions, such as no alcohol, no pork, etc. in this religion, so that the black man could free his mind which had been forced to believe in white Christianity before (Hart 42-43). tact the Honorable Elijah Muhammad, who teachings, therefore they visited him in prison and sent him letters so they could explain the meaning and beliefs of the Nation of Islam (X and Haley 176-179). The Nation of Islam was founded in 1930 by Wallace D Fard, who believed that black people should separate from white citizens. In other words, the Nation of Islam welcomed only African Americans, who believed in black God Allah (Hamilton 16). As a result, Malcom was writing letters to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad every day. Moreover, Malcolm also kept in touch with his family through letters, discussing the teachings of Elijah Muhammad. Furthermore, Malcolm also tried to influence people which he knew from his past because of gambling and so on to start believing in what he believed any answer (X and Haley 184-186). Next, after Malcolm gained more knowledge from 34
reading different kinds of historical and philosophical books and after receiving many the truth about slavery which they had probably never heard before as most of the books of black men being imprisoned by white men, for the African Americans having no big dreams and being determined to stay aside. It all came to a point when Malcolm delivered speeches in front of the audience of prisoners (X and Haley 198-200). According to Professor Hart, it must have been very painful for Malcolm to hear that his brother Reginald was expelled from the Nation of Islam because it was believed that he had an affair with a secretary of the New York Temple. After all, Reginald was the first person to show Malcolm the Nation of Islam and later after Reginald was expelled, he went to visit Malcolm in prison telling him bad words about Elijah Muhammad, which Malcolm did not like and in consequence Malcolm stopped communicating with Reginald (48). Later, while he was living alone, Reginald went mad, and similarly to he saw snakes everywhere. Moreover, when on the streets, he was telling people that he was Allah and later that he was greater than Allah (Hart 48). After that, according to Malcolm, Reginald was taken to an institute. In addition, it was only discovered later that Elijah Muhammad himself was an obscene man. Therefore, Malcolm believed that Reginald became mad because of the denial of his own family when at the same time the family supported Elijah Muhammad (X and Haley 205). Finally, in August 1952, Malcolm X was paroled from the prison after writing to Charlestown officers. He was released after six years of imprisonment (Hamilton 19). 35
After his release, he was given a job by the Nation of Islam and in the summer 1953 he became an Assistant Minister at Detroit Temple Number One. At this time, he was already being watched by the FBI (Hart 51).

2.4 Pre-Civil Rights Movement Activities

Before Malcolm became an Assistant Minister for the Nation of Islam, he had met Mr. Muhammad. As Malcolm was visiting Temple Number One in Detroit frequently, he saw that the number of people attending the service held in there was low. Therefore, he was given a piece of advice from Mr. Muhammad to go and get young people to become members of the Nation of Islam. Malcolm did exactly what Mr. Muhammad told him, The surname X was used by members of the Nation of Islam as denial of the surname they were given during the times of slavery. At this time, Malcolm Little changed his name to Malcolm X, which he used since then (X and Haley 216). As mentioned above, in 1953, Malcolm became an Assistant Minister in Detroit Temple Number One. The Minister in this mosque at that time was Lemuel Hassan. However, Haley 218-219). Professor Hart adds, that it was Malcolm who brought the most people to the Nation of Islam, nobody else did. Next, he made it possible for Boston Temple 11 and Philadelphia Temple 12 to be established, after Detroit Temple 1 and Chicago Temple

2 were in its full growth (61).

B sent to Boston to spread the word about the teachings that he had learned from Elijah

The po

36
already listened to Malcolm invited other people and that is how the audience became bigger every time. It got to a point where there were so many people attending that Malcolm and the members of the Nation of Islam had to open up a new temple, Boston Temple 11. In March 1954, Elijah Muhammad sent Malcolm to find a temple in Philadelphia, which was established in May 1954. As a reward for having such great success establishing these two temples, Malcolm was later sent to New York City, to be a Minister of Temple Seven. At first, he was struggling with convincing people to visit the temple, however he saw the potential in such a big city (X and Haley 231-238). Finally, Malcolm was successful, and by reaching out to African Americans on the streets of New York, he and his co-workers were able to gather thousands of people to become members of the Nation of Islam (Hamilton 20). Successfully bringing a lot of people to the Nation of Islam, Professor Hart posits that Malcolm never really mentioned recruiting women. One of the reasons mentioned is that Malcolm did not trust women, based on his experiences with them. He only tried to recruit his friends from the past who were men, never a woman (61). His trust in women changed only after a marriage to Betty X in January 1958, who according to Malcolm was one of the women that he could trust (Hart 62). The planning of the wedding was pretty fast. In his autobiography, Malcolm describes parents in Detroit, who previously did not like that their daughter became a Muslim, however while meeting them they looked like they accepted Betty the way she had become, his brother Wilfred. Then, as Malcolm wanted to get married immediately, he found out from his brother that it should be possible in Indiana without any prolonged time. However, once the couple got to Indiana, the laws had changed, and it would have taken 37
a longer time to get married. Because of this new issue, Malcolm drove with Betty to Lansing, where his brother Philbert lived, and Malcolm and Betty managed to marry on the same day that they arrived in Lansing (X and Haley 251-252). Surprisingly, their wedding was nothing like a Muslim ceremony. It was a civil ceremony with a lot of white officers and none of the other people in the wedding were African American or Muslim (Hart 62). first child was born in November 1958, a girl named Attilah. After she was born, the family moved to a big house in Queens, Long Island. Next, in December

1960 their second daughter, Qubilah was born. Later, in July 1962 Betty gave birth to yet

another girl, Ilyasah, and finally in 1964, their fourth daughter, Amilah, was born (X and

Haley 253).

One of the first events that publicly showed the connection and bonding between Muslim African American members of the Nation of Islam happened in 1959. Two members of this association witnessed a fight on the street. When the police told them to go away, they did not listen and as a result one of them was beaten by the police. He was injured and taken to a local police station. The second of the witnesses called to the temple and told the other members what had happened. Soon after the call, fifty Muslim men from the Temple Seven gathered in front of the police station. Other African American bystanders joined them because they were interested in what was going on. The moment Malcolm arrived, he stepped in the police station and asked the officers to show him the injured man. At first, they denied, however a while later, knowing that the Muslims would not leave without seeing him, the officers brought him the injured man. Malcolm admits that he was frightened because of what he saw. The man was bleeding and needed medical help. Therefore, Malcolm asked the officers to call an ambulance, which, seeing the big crowd of African American Muslims outside, they did. The man was transported to 38
Harlem Hospital. Later, after being assured that the man was provided the best care, Malcolm told the members, who moved from the police station and followed the ambulance and were waiting outside of the hospital to go home. According to Malcolm, this was the first time that the newspapers had ever written about the Muslim African

American community (X and Haley 254-256).

Later on, in 1959, that same year, the television broadcasted a documentary about the Nation of Islam called The Hate that Hate Produced (Hamilton 21). Right after, the Nation of Islam got the attention of white citizens in the USA. The documentary was shot association, the press referred to him as to the leader of the Nation of Islam (Hart 62). - - - reaction to this, Malcolm had to explain such topics from his point of view and from what he and other members of the Muslim community believed in, for example, that they were trying to make the African American Muslims believe in themselves. Next, when the Nation was accused of teaching judo and karate, he had to explain that everybody does that, and it is acceptable only until an African American person participated in it. There were many more questions asked, all of them accusing the Nation of Islam of bad activities (X and Haley 262-263). Malcolm also talked about political events, such as the Civil Rights Movement, involving the Nation of Islam. However, the main leaders of the Nation did not want that, they were se controversy between Malcolm and the main leaders of the association (Hamilton 20-21). 39
did not want to help white people divide the African American race against their very own race. However, after some negative feedback on the Nation of Islam from other African American leaders, Malcolm got permission from Mr. Muhammad and spoke critically about other African American leaders: ef on his head. This modern, twentieth-- dressed and well- The twentieth-century Uncle Thomas sometimes speaks with a Yale or Harvard accent. Sometimes he is known as Professor, Doctor, Judge, and Reverend, even Right Reverend Doctor. This twentieth-century Uncle Thomas is a professional

Haley 265)

As a consequence of such events, the press started being interested in the Nation of Islam and the publishers were issuing articles about this Muslim association, with such a strong personality like Malcolm X in the lead (X and Haley 266). 40

3. THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND BLACK

POWER

3.1 The Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement started to gain its importance in the 1950s and very soon it became the most significant civil movement in the United States of America. It fought for rights and equality of African American citizens mainly in the South states of the country. The major topics of the movement were voting rights, education, and job

Civil Rights Movement was the only civil

organization, which was able to gather tens of thousands of people throughout different races (Altbach 233).

3.1.1 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

The first big case happening during the Civil Rights Movement was the decision of the court which banned segregation in public schools in 1954 (Altbach 233). The name of the case is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Winning this court case was a big victory for the NAACP as t the constitution (Garrow 15). This case had a big impact on the future direction of the Civil Rights Movement. Even though it was a success and it looked like that public schools accepted everybody no matter which race they were, the reality was different, and there still was segregation in public schools. Bell asserts that such situation was happening because the court was not able to put the decision into practice and therefore it could not work (Bell 518). 41

3.1.2 Montgomery Bus Boycott

Martin Luther King Jr.first encounter with the Civil Rights Movement happened when he was staying in Montgomery. King was chosen to participate in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which started in 1955, as he was elected to lead the committee which was called the Montgomery Improvement Association, the MIA in short (Zola et al. 38). Even though it is the story of Rosa Parks that sparked the bus boycott as she denied leaving her seat for a white passenger on the bus in Montgomery, she was not the first person to do so, as there were some African Americans who did the same thing before Parks actually did. However, when these African Americans were arrested for committing the same crime as Rosa Parks in December 1955, the African American citizens were not well coordinated yet. One of the people who denied leaving her seat was a 15-year-old Claudette Colvin, studying high school at the time (The JBHE Foundation, Inc 107). Rosa Parks was arrested on December 1, 1955. Right after that, she spoke to E. D. Nixon, who was a leader of the NAACP, and to whom she was a secretary. The action of African American activists followed immediately, they already had in mind that they would organize the bus boycott as a form of protest against segregation policy in Montgomery buses. Therefore, leaflets were printed to inform the African American Montgomery inhabitants to not