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Much before William Wordsworth started writing, the early Romantic poets in that age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and the word

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THEGOLDENAGE;

ASTUDYINROMANTICISM

HENRYALFREDBURD

B.S.ILLINOISWESLEYANUNIVERSITY,1910

THESIS

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TheGoldenAge;

AStudyInRomanticism.

TableofContents,

Introduction-------------------I-VITI,

TheClassicalPoets---------------1-16

EighteenthCenturyImitators-----------17-2S

EighteenthCenturyRomanticists----------29-60

TheNewPoliticalGospel-------------61-88

Bibj-iography-------------------89-100

THEGOLDENAGE.

Introduction

Theconceptionofthegoldenageisfoundintheliterature

ofallagesandamongallpeoples.ThemythologyofGreeceand Rome,thefolkloreofantiquity,andthewondertalesofthe Hebreuvs,areallaglowwiththegoldengloryofthepast.The lifeoftheearlyyearsoftheracewasheroicintheeyesofthe poet,thehistorian,andtheseer,'oecauseoftheirpointofview.

Theystoodinthemidstofapeoplemoreorlessdegradedand

barbarousjanditwasnaturalthattheyshoulddrawapictureofa timewhichtheyconsideredtobeideallygoodincontrasttothe wickednessoftheirowntime.Thevisionwhichtheyconceivedwas ofalifeofpastoralsimplicitywhenmendwelttogetherwithout lawsandwithoutstrife.Therewasnoneedoflabor,theearth yieldeditsfruitsspontaneously,careandpainwereunknown,and deathwasasleep.Thispictureofanexistenceofinnocenceand happiness,asittookdefiniteformintheearlymythology,was knownasthegoldenage.Anditremainstodaywithmostofthe characteristicswith//hichthatmythologyendowedit.Theori- ginalconnotationprobablyhadsomereligioussignificance,"but longafterithaddiedoutasreligionitlivedonaspoetry,re- tainingitsoriginalquality,thoughthetheologycontainedinit hasbeenforeversupersededorabsorbedintomorespiritual

12creeds."Somiewritersholdthereligiouselementtobestill

1.J.A.SymiOnds,StudiesoftheGreekPoets.Twovols.Thirded.London,1902.Vol.1,p.75

2-i^.J.Irowne,AHistoryofRomanClassicalLiterature.London,n.d.

dominantandrr.akeallallusionstothegoldenagereferultimately totheHetrews.Butitisnotgermanetothepresentpurposeto discoverwhetherthepaganpoetswereimitatinglifeinthe GardenofEdenoryvhethertheywerefollo7/ingoutoneoftheir ownancientmythicaltraditions.Itissufficienttoknowthat theideaofthegoldenagewasverywidespreadandexistedgener- allyaunongthewritersofantiquity.

HumannaturedoesnotvarywithinAidelimits,nordo

changestakeplacequickly.Incertainfundanientalessentials humanityisthesameyesterday,today,andforever.Peopleinall agesandatalltimeshavehadimagination.Ithaspromptedmen whowereooanddownbythemonotonyofaprosaiclifetofancyan existenceofunlimitedhappiness,VStoerevertherehasexistedthe feelingthatlife,individualorsocial,ftasimperfectandcapable ofimprovement,imaginationhascreatedamoretranquilexistence, abetterandhappiercomjnunity,oranidealcomm^onwealth.This tendencytoseekanideal,thislongingforsomethingbetterthan isactuallyexperienced,isasoldasthehumanrace;ithasalways hauntedthem.indofmananditwillcontinuetofirehisimagina- tionsolongasthereshallexistanim^perfectsociety.

VS/liiletheclassicalpoetscharacterizethelifeofthe

goldenagewithessentiallythesamiefeatures,theyarebyno meansaunitastoitsgeographicallocation.WiththeHebre.^s itwastheGardenofEden-whereverthatchoicebitofearthmay be.TotheGreekminditwasanArcadiasituatedsomewhereinthe Orient."Cratinigseem.stoputitinSpartajPherecratessetsforth III. thebeliefthatitisinPersia;""^othersthinkofitasin Thessaly.TheLatinwritersimitatedtheGreeks,butVirgilenter- tainedthehopethathisownnativeItalyftoaldwitnessthecoming ofthesecondgoldenage.Withallofthewritersthefeelingof nationalpridehadmoreorlessinfluence.Eachwasanxiousto putforthhisnativeprovinceastheonethathadbeensosingu- larlyfavoredbythegodsastobethedwellingplaceofanideal raceofmen.

Tothepoetsofantiquitythegoldenagewasalonglost

condition.lthadexistedso/r.ewhereintheall-but-forgottenpast, andsincethatageofinnocenceandpuritymankindhadbeenstead- ilygrowingworse.Infact,sincethattimethehumanracehad passedthroughthreesuccessiveages-silver,bronze,heroic,and intoafourth-iron,theworstofall.Vtliiletherearehintsamong theminorir.riterswhichvaguelysuggestthattheymayhavethought ofthegoldenageasapresentorapossiblefuturecondition,the generalidea,andtheonlyonethatisclearlydefined,isofa pastcondition.%irgilistheexceptiontothisrule.Heisthe greatstncientpoetwhostandsaloneasprophesyingtherealization ofthegoldenageintheimmediatefuture. I.SrnestusGraf,AdAureaeAetatisPabulumSymbola,inLeipzigerStudien,vol.8,p.69.Leipzig,1885 .

2.SrnestusGrafsays(64),"Itcannotbedeterminedfromthecomicpoetswhethertheyweredepictingpastconditions,anidealpresentorpossiblefutureconditions.Cratinis,inDivitiarumfrg.,speaksofitaspresent;Teleclide3,inAmphictyonibusfrg.l.4,speal<-sofapastage;andCrates,inFerisfrg.,speaksofafuturecondition

IV.

Theideaofthepresentdayis.justoppositetothepre-

vailingclassicaltendency.TheGreeklookedtothepast,the modernlookstothefutureforhisgoldenage.Astheancientsaw hisageofblissintheremotepast,themodernseeshisinthe remotefuture.Ineithercasetheremotenessofthescenehas muchtodoinlendingtoittheglanriorofideality. "'Tisdistancelendsenchantmenttotheview."I Ihavesaidtherewasachangeofattitude-fromthebackward looktotheforwardlook.Todeterminetheapproximatetimeand therelativeconditionsattendantuponthatchangeisoneofthe problemsofthefollowingpages.

Romanticismhasbeendefinedastheliteratureofescape

fromthepresenttimeandplacetosomeothertimeandplace.In thisrespecttheliteraturedealingwiththegoldenagemaybe consideredasdistinetlyromantic.Theprevailingformofthatlit- eratuream.ongtheclassicpoetsandtheeighteenthcenturyimita- torswasthepastoral."Theconceptionofagoldenageofrustic simplicitydoesnot,indeed,involvethewholeworldofpastoral literature.Itdoesnotaccounteitherfortheallegoricalpastoral inwhichactualpersonagesareintroduced,intheguiseofshepherds todiscusstemporaryaffairs,orfortheso-calledrealisticpas- toral,inwhichthetownlooksonwithamusedenvyattherustic freedomofthecountry.'JVhatitdoescomprehend,isthatoutburst ofpastoralsongwhichsprangfromtheyearningofthetiredsoul t;pescape,i**itwerebutinimaginationandforamoment,toalife

I.ThomasCam.pbell,PleasuresofHope.

V. ofsiir-plicityandinnocencefromthebitterluxuryofthecourt andthemenialbreadofprinces.

Ifrorranticismisconsideredas"thenaturalattitudeof

childhood;thepursuitofaneverfleeting"ill-o'-the-uvisp;a formofhon-.e3ickness,ornostalgia;orthelongingforanother ftiorld,"^thegoldena^eliteraturemustbeclassedasromantic. As"theromanceofchildhoodistnedreamwithwhichageconsoles itselfforthedisillusionnientsoflife,"^sothegoldenageis thedreaminwhichtheromanticistseekssolacefortheheart- achesanddisappoinLmientsofactualexistence.Theclassical goldenagewasadreamofthechildhoodoftherace.Thepoets lookedbackfromthetoilandstrifeoftheirowntimeandfound comfortincontemplatingthesimplicityofthatprimevalexis- tence.Thesamemotivepromiptedtheyoungromxanticpoetstore- viveaninterestinthegoldenage.Weshalltracethisrevival throughtheeighteenthcenturyandendeavortopointoutsomeof thewaysinwhichithadabearingontheromanticmovement.

Ithasbeenseenthatthesentimentofthegoldenagewas

verywidespreadamongtheancientpoetsandthatithasexisted almostfromthebeginning.Butitisnottobeinferredthatthe dreamofabetterdaywastheexclusivepropertyofthepoets.

1.WalterW.Greg,PastoralPoetryandPastoralDrama,London.1906,p.6.'*

2.ProfessorIrvingBabbitt,lectureon"MeaningofthewordRoman-tic,"beforeEnglishJournalClub,U.ofI.Jan.II,I9ll.

3.Greg,p.6,n.2.

VI. Politicalphilosophers,realizingtheimperfectionsofhumanin- stitutions,setabouttocreate,infancy,anewcoirjnunity,anideal coirjionwealth.Plato'sRepublicisalandofidealjustice,jrherein eachworksforthecowiongoodofall;inMore'sUtopia(I5I6) wisdomiswealthandrichesofgoldandjewelsaredespised.These aresufficienttoillustratetheearlytendencytoreconstruct societyaccordingtoidealprinciples.Thistendencyfoundits mostardentsupportersintheeighteenthcenturyinJeanJacques Rousseau,TomPaine,andWilliainGodwin.Butthesemenwerein- fluencedbythepoeticalconceptionofthegoldenageaswellas bytheidealcommonwealthsofthephilosophers.Weareconcerned hereonlywiththeformer.Todeterminetherelationshipofthe poeticalconceptionofthegoldenagetotherevoltfromthees- tablishedorderofgovernmentandtheconsequentfoundingofa newpoliticalgospel,isathirdpurposeofthisstudy.

Thereisstillanotherfieldinwhichthegoldenageidea

hadaveryinterestingdevelopment.Poetsadvocatedareturnto tnesimple,unaffected,rurallife;politiealreformerssoughtto establishidealgovernments;andreligiouswritersprophesiedan earthlyparadise.Virgil'sFourthEcloguewaswritteninthelast halfofthefirstcenturyB.C.Itwasatimeofgreatuneasiness amongthepeople.ThewarsinwhichRomehadbeenaprincipal factorforsolongwereover,andthebeginningofatimeofquiet ledthepeopletoexpectsomieeventwhichshouldbringpeaceand happiness."ThedivinerevelationwhichGod'speopleenjoyed VII. taughtthemtoexpecttheadventoftheMessiah."-'Feligiousen- thusiaststookthePolliotobeapoeticalrenditionofthe propheciesofIsaiah,andsawinitaforecastofthebirthof Christ.Theirbeliefseemedtobenotwhollywithoutfoundation forinashortwhiletheMessiahwasborn.Theylooked,then,fora secularkingdomandthetemporaltrium.phoftheirLeader.They saft-,infancy,theoldpropheciesliterallyfulfilled-thewolf dwellingwiththelaxnb,theleopardwiththekid,thecalfwith thelion,thecowwiththebear,andthelioneatingstrawlikean ox.2Butnoneofthesethingscametopass.Christlefttheearth withouthavingperceptiblychangedconditionsintoalikenessof themythologicalgoldenage.Hisfollowerswerenottobedis- heartenedbythisfailureandtheysetthetimefortheregener- ationoftheworldathissecondcoming.SectsofMillennarians sprangup,whosaidthatattheexpirationofathousandyears, Christwouldreturnandestablishupontheearthakingdorr.with allitsprom.isedglories.Thenhappinessajndpeaceshouldreign supre.re,andviolenceanddiscordbeunk-nown.Butthethousand yearspassedbywithoutthelooked-fordevelopments,andreligious writersbegantotakeanewpointofview.Insteadofprophesying anearthlyparadisewithChristasking,theylookedforwardtoa timewhenallmenshouldrecognizeacommionbondofbrotherhood. Thisis,ingeneral,theattitudeoftheChristianleaderoftoday. Whenallmien,everyvhere,observethegoldenruleanddealwitheach

I.Browne,p.249

2.IsaiahXI.1-9

VIII. otherinthetrmespiritofbrotherhood,thenwillthegoldenage havecomeindeed.Thistimeisplacedinthefardistantfuture, andthedesiredendcanbeaccomplishedonlythroughthelabor andself-sacrificeofthosefjhorecognizetheirkinshiptoall thenationsoftheworld.Butthereisanabidingfaiththatthe goalft'illultimatelybereached.Itcanbestbeexpressedinthe wordsofRobertBurns:

Fora'that,an'a'that,

It'scomingyet,fora'that.

Thatir.antoman,thewarldo'er,

Shallbrothersbe,fora'that

. Inthedevelopmentoftheconceptionofthegoldenagefroma religiouspointofviewwehaveasplendidillustrationofan ancientideacarriedintomoderntimiesjandthereconstruetionof thatideatomeetthenewconditions.Butthisiswithoutthe rangeofthepresentworkandwewillbenofartherconcernedwith it. I.Burns'ConoletePoeticalWorks,Camibridgeed.BostonandNewYork,1697."Fora'that,anda'that."p.294.

ChapterOne.

THECLASSICALPOETS.

Greekmythologyreceiveditshistoricformfromtwo

greatpoets,Hesiod(9thcenturyB.C.)andHomer(9thcenturyB.C.) ItisgenerallyconcededthatHesiodwasthefirsttodesignate thefiveAgesof.lankind,andtocharacterizethegoldenageiwith thosefeatureswhichreir.ainwithit,inlargepart,today.Ishall giveHesiod'sconceptionoftheAges.Therewill"bemanyfuture referencestotheSilverAge,IronAge,etc.,andacharacterization ofthefivedivisionsno//willmakethese-referencescleariflrithout, repitition.This/.illalsoaidusinappreciatingthepoet's pointofview,andhelpustounderstandwhatitweanttohimto picturethelifeofthegoldenage.

IntheAgeofGoldSaturnreignedupontheearthandmen

livedwithoutcare,orpain,oroldage;deathcameli^eas/.eet sleep;theearthyieldedfruitsuntilled.Afterdeaththespirits weremadeguardiansofmortalmen. "MenspentalifelikegodsinSaturn'sreign.

Norfelttheirmindacare,norbodypain;

Fromlaborfree,theyev'rysenseenjoy;

Norcouldtheillsoftimetheirpeacedestroy;

Inbanquetstheydelight,removedfrom,care;

Nortroublesomeoldageintrudedthere:

Theydie,orratherseemtodie,theyseem

FrofThencetransportedinapleasingdream.

Thefields,asyetuntill'dtheirfruitsafford,

Andfillasumiptuousandunenvy'dboard:

2 .

Thus,croK'n'd"piihhappinesstheireveryday,

Sereneandjoyful,passedtheirlivesais^ay.

Wheninthegravethisraceofmenwaslaid,

Soonwasa?/orldofholydemonsmade,

Aerialspirits,bygreatJovedesign'd,

Tobeonearththeguardianofmankind;

Invisibletomortaleyestheygo,

Andmarkouractions,goodorbad,below;

Th•immortalspieswithwatchfulcarepreside.

Andthricetenthousandroundtheirchargesglide:

Theycanrewardwithgloryorwithgold;

Apow'rtheybydivinepermissionhold."^

Thenextagehecallsthesilver.Itisinferiortothe

first.Theraceiscondeminedtoalongchildhoodandabriefma- turity,butbecausethealtarswereneglectedandthegodsignored Jove,inanger,sweptitaway.Thepeopleweredeemedhappyafter death.

Thethirdageisthebrazen.Theearthispeopledwitha

raceofmxonstrousphysique.Theyfirsteatneat.Theirhousesand weaponsaremadeofbrass.Beingsopowerfultheirchiefdelight isinwar,butitprovestheirundoing,fortheyperishbymutual slaughter.Thereisnoblissfulfuturelifefortherace,it diedwithoutanamie.

I.ThomiasCooke,TheWorksofHesiodtranslatedfrom,theGreek,inAnderson'sBritish-E-oetSjLondon,1795,Vol.13.WorksandDays,Bk.I,l.IS9ff

. 3. AtthisstageHesiodsuspends,fora?i'hile,thedOR'nward processionoftheraces,andpayshisrespectstotheheroeswho fellbeforeThebesandTroy.Thisraceisbetterthantheone wnichimiLediatelyprece^i^'dedit.Afterdeaththeheroesaretrans- portedtotheislandsoftheblestinheretheylivealifestrik- inglysiirdlartothatenjoyedonearthduringthegoldenage. NoK'comestheironage,corrupt,degenerate,andtoilsome, inft'hichHesiodconceivedhimselftobeliving.Inthisage, familytiesarebroken,oathsandvowsarenotbinding;soonmod- estyandjusticewillforsaketheearthandonlywoes,evil, hatred,andviolence,renaintheportionofman. "0.'would1hadmyhoursoflifebegan

Beforethisfifth,thissinfulraceofman;

OrhadInotbeencall'dtobreathetheday,

Tilltheroughironagehadpass'daway:

Fornow,thetimesaresuch,thegodsordain,

Thateverymomientshallbewing'dwithpain;

Condemn'dtosorrows,andtotoilwelive;

Resttoourlabordeathalonecangi^re;

Andyet,air.idthecaresourlivesannoy,

Thegodswillgrantsomeintervalsofjoy:

Buthowdegen'raleisthehurranstate!

Virtuenomoredistinguishesthegreat;

Nosafereceptionshallthestrangerfind;

Norshallthetiesofbloodorfriendshipbind;

Norshalltheparent,whenhissonsarenigh.

Lookwiththefondnessofaparent'seye,

Nortothesirethesonobediencepay,

Norlookwithreverenceonthelocksofgray,

But0.'rep:ardle3Softhepo^r'rsdivine,

Withbittertauntsshallloadhislife'sdecline.

RevengeandrapineshallrespectcomtLand,

Thepious,just,andgooi,neglectedstand.

Thewickedshallthebettermandistress,

Therighteoussuffer,andwithoutredress;

Stricthonesty,andnakedtruth,shallfail.

Theper.iur'dvillianinhisartsprevail.

Hoarseenvyshall,unseen,exerthervoice,

Attendthewretched,andinillrejoice.

Atlastfairn.odestyandjusticefly,

F.ob'dtheirpurelircbsinwhite,andgainthesky,

Fromthewideearththeyreachtheblestabodes,

Andjointhegr$indassemblyofthegods,

Whilemortalnen,abandon'dtotheirgrief,

Suckintheirsorrows,hopelessofrelief.

Afterfollowingthroughthefivesuccessiveages,and

noticingespecially,thedespairwithwhichhespeaksofhisown time,theIronAge,itiseasytounderstandwhytheconceptionof thegoldenagehadsuchacharmforHesiodandforallthepoets. Thewickednessandviolenceofhisagedepressedh-^m.,hissoulwas

1.Ibid,Ek.I,1.234ff

. 5 burdenedwiththelackofreverencearrongthepeople,andhe: turnedforsolacetothattimewhenallavasinnocence,quiet, andreverence.Thecontrastisabsolute,andthatfactaccounts inlargemeasurefortheattractivenesswhichthegoldenagehas alwa:>'Shad.J.A.Symond?says:"TheHesiodicconceptionoffeli- city....owesitsbeautytoasenseofcontrastbetween tranquilityimaginedandwoeandwarfareactuallyexperienced."1 Andthissuggestsanotherelement-itsbeauty.Itisthebeauty ofapoetperforminghismissionofliftingthesoulfromthe dullandcorrmonplace,toaheightwhenceitmiaycatchavisionof somethingennoblingandinspiring.ButFesiodgivesnoinspira- tionfortnefuture;hisvisionisofthegloryofwhathasbeen andisnomiore;heseesagoldenpastbutonlyanironpresent andfuture.

ThepartwhichHomerplayedingivingthegoldenage

m.ythologyitshistoricalformwasnotsogreatasthatofHesiod. InthisrespectHomerismostoftenassociatedwitht>-iethought oftheElysianPlainandislesoftheElest.LifeintheElysian Plainisverylikethatinthegoldenage.Theconditionofthose inElysiumiishumananianteriortodeath;yetitisasaspecial privilegeinsubstitutionfordeath.Hespeatcsofitthus:"the deathlessgodswillconveytheetotheElysianPlainandthe world'send,whereisFhadananthu?ofthefairhair,wherelife

I.Symonds.vol.1,p.158.

6. iseasiestformen.Nosnowisthere,noryetgreatstorm,nor anyrain;"butsilwaysoceansendethforththebreezeoftheshrill west,tobio*-coolonmen."-^

InhiswanderingsOdysseuscomesintoahappylandruled

overbythegraciouskingAlcinous,likeanimmortal,whilehis queenweavesbeautifulyarnofsea-purplesatin.Intheirpalace thereisabrightnessasofthesunandmoon.Intheirgardenthe fruitneverfailswinterorsumjiier,enduringalltheyearthrough pears,apples,grapes,figs,etc.,ripencontinuouslyandwithout graftingorpruning.^Itrem.indsoneveryforciblyofHesiod's goldenage,anditisprobablythesamemythologywithaslightly differentinterpretation.Theessentialcharacteristicsarecom- montoboth,-ahappyland,nolabor,nostrife,spontaneous productionofthenecessariesoflife.

Theocritus(3rdcenturyB.C.)standspreeminentamong

pastoralpoets.Hecreatedtheverseformiwhichwasimitatedby theclassicalpoetsin"naturepoetry",andwhichbecamethe vehicleforexpressingthesentimientofthegoldenageamongthe earlyeighteentr^imitators.Theocrituswasborninthemidstof theunchangingnatureofSicily,thenaturethat,"throughall thechangesofthings,hasneverlostitssunnycharm.Kelived

1.TheOdysseyofHomerdoneintoEnglishprosebyS.H.Butcher

andA.Lang.NewYork,1900.OdysseyIV.563.

2.W.H.Appleton,GreekpoetsinEnglishVerse.NewYork.1893.OdysseyVII,81-132.

3.Theocritus,BionandMoscus,trans,byA.Lang.NewYork.1896.Introd.XIV.

intheruraldistrictsamongtheflute-playingshepherds.Every dayhesawabouthimtheevidencesdfrusticbounty-"a'cundance offoodandwineandthereposethatsiR^eetenstheseasonofout- doorwork,""^Buthewasnotastrangertothecity.InSyracuse andtheothertownsofthecoasthesawtherefinedandluxurious manners,thegildedpastimesandhollowpleasures,ofthepolite societyofhisday.Thenhehadonlytopassthegatesandwander intothecountry,thegoldenworldofthepastoral.Amanofless imaginationthanthepoetwouldhaveappreciatedthecontrast. Itisnotsurprising,then,thatTheocritusidealize.ithelifeof theshepherds.Their•'swastheexistencewhichhelovedtocon- tem;plate,andhebuiltupahappyperfectionoflifewhich rivalledthatoftherr^thicalgoldenage.ComipareHesiod's

Thefields,asyetuntill'd,theirfruitsafford,

withthis,fromitheseventhIdylofTheocritus,"pearsatourfeet andapplesbyoursideswererollingplentiful,thetenderbranch- es,wit-h?.ildplumsladen,wereearthwardbowed,"anditwillbe seenthattheyarealikeinfreedomfromworkandinabundanceof food.Toillustrateanothercom.monelementIquotefromithe twelfthIdyl,"Anea.ualyokeoffriendshiptheybore:ah,surely then,thereweregoldenm.enofold,whenfriendsgavelovefor love."Thenbutnotno/.,formennolongergiveloveforlove, instead,envyandjealouslyprevail. I.W.C.Wright,AshorthistoryofGreekLiterature.Chicago,1907 . p.428, 8.

Thethoughtofanidealexistenceoftherace/.asnot

confinedtotheGreeks.Alongwiththegeneraldiffusionof Hellenicculturetheconceptionofthemythicalgoldenagefilter edintoLatinliterature.Itfoundareceptivesoilandsoonwas asgenerallydiffusedarriOngtheLatinsastheGreeks. Lucretius(96-55E.G.)isoneofthefirstpoetstoexpressthe sentimentamongtheLatins.Hesa"i-thelesseningfertilityof Italy,henoticedthedecayofthenationalcharacter,thein- creasingA-eaknessoftheRomangovernment,andtheformalityand mereritualismofthereligiousservices,andhethoughttheend oftheworldwasnear.Helookedbacktothebeginningofthe worldanddreA'apictureofthelifeashesawit.Menlived withoutplowingtheearthorpruningthetrees;theyateacorns andberriesanddrankfromtherunningstreams;theydidnot knowtheuseoffireandhadnoclothes;theydweltintheforest withoutla/;sorcustoms.Thisageofmanheconceivedtobesu- premelyhappyinitssimplicity,andcontrastedthatlife/.ithth sophisticationofhisowntime.Becauseitwillbereferredto again,Iwillherequotethepassagefrom]DeRerumNatura,in whichLucretiuscharacterizesthisearlylife. "¥0onethenAasasturdyguiderofthebentploworknew howtolaborthefields/vithironorplantinthegroundyoung saplingsorlopwithpruning-hooksoldboughsfromthehigh trees.'Ahatthesunandrainshadgiven,whattheearthhadpro- ducedspontaneously,wasguerdonsufficienttocontenttheir hearts.Amongacorn-bearingoakstheywouldrefreshtheirbodies forthe/r.ostpart;andthearhute-fcerrieswhichyounowseein thewinter-timeripenwithabrightscarlethue,theearthifi-ould thenhearingreatestplentyandofalargersize;andmany coarseki.ndsoffoodbesidestheteerr.ingfreshnessoftheworld thenbaremorethanenoughforpoorwretchedmen.Butriversand springsinvitedtoslakethirst,evenasnowarushofwater downfromthegreathillssuiwiionswithclearplashfarandwide tr.ethirstyracesofwildbeasts.Thentooastheyrangedabout theywouldoccupythewell-kno^Tiwoodlandhauntsofthenymphs, outofwhichtheyknewthatsmooth-glidinzstream.sofwaterwith acopiousgushbathedthedrippingrocks,tricklingdownovert:]e greenaoss;andinpartswelledandbubbledoutoverthelevel plain.Andasyettheyknewnothowtoapplyfiretotheirpur- posesortomakeuseofskinsandclothetheirbodyinthespoils ofwildbeasts,buttheywoulddwellinwoodsandmiountain-caves andforestsandshelterinthebrush/zoodtheirsqualidlim^bs whendriventoshunthebuffetingofthewindsandtherains.And theywereunabletolooktothegeneralwealandknewnothowto makeacomn-onuseofanycustomsorlaws."l

Propertius(50-15B.C.),thegreatRom.anelegiacpoet,

dweltmiuchonthesimplicityandvirtueofgoldenagelife.He hadimibibedawealtinofGreekmythologyandhisconceptionofthe felicityoftheyouthfulracewasessentiallyHesiodic.inhis ElegieshegivesahistoryoftheriseofEomiebeginningwith I.T.LucretiCari,TeEeruiriMatura,translatedbyF.A.J.Munro.

4thed.LondonandCarrbridge,ie91.BookV,1.922ff

. 10. theearlytimetmeneverything"vaspeacefulandhappyandending A'iththewarandtuir.ultofhisowntime.Hissoulfledfromthe harshlifeabouthimandfoundsolaceinthesimplicityofthener ofold.Heirr-aginedthelifeofthatagelobespentinabeau- tifulvalleywherespringwasperpetualandflowersblossomedand fruitsripenedcontinuously.Shameandfalsemodestywereun- knowntothepeopleandthewomenweretrueinlove. "Happyindaysofyorewerethepeacelovingrustic youths,ft'hoseorchardandharvestweretheirwealth.They dweltm"agroveenclosedwithanivy-cladravine,withmanya treerustlinginconcertwiththeplashofnativewaters,the shadyabodeofSylvanus,whitherthesweetpipecalledthesheep

Outoftheglacetodrink.Therewasinthatplaceaspring,

beneaththecrestofMountArganthus,aliquidabode,lovedby theThynianNymphs;overitfrom,theboughsofthetreesinthat wildernesshungdeweyapplesindebtedtonocare,andaround,in thewaterrreado/.,rosefairl^lie.?,groupedwithpurplepoppies."3

Inthosedayswomenweretrueinlove,andvirtuethrove

6veryATiere.

IncontrasttothispicturePropertiussawthearmiesof

Romelaywastethelandanddestroythehonorandvirtueofthe

1.TheElegiesofPropertius.TranslatedbytheRevP.J.F.:}ao.li.lloHiLondon,:899.BookIV.Elegy7111.

2.Ibid,BookV.ElegyIV.

3.Ibid,RookI.ElegyXX".

4.Ibid,BookIIElegyIX.

11 people.Helookedintothepastandteheldeverythingdesirable forcompletehappiness,hutheseemedtohavenohopethatthese thingswouldreturn.

PerhapsnoEomanpoethasm-adeuseofsomuchofthe

GrecianmythologyashasHorace(65-6B.C.).Onecannotreadthe odesandepodeswithoutbeingstruckwithhisconstantemiployment ofit.Wnatconcernsushereistheeulogyofcountrylifeinthe secor.depode.Hecountsthatmianhappywholivesfarfromthecity andhasnocaretutthewatchingofhisflocks,andthislifehe comparestothatinthegoldenage.incontrasttothisisthe greedandavariceandthestrivingsforpowerandglorywhichgets holdofthoseinthecity.HisaccountoftheHappyIslesbeyond theWesternOcean,EpodeXVI,issimilartoHomer'sIslesofthe Blest .

InthefirstbookoftheMetairiorphosisOvid(43B.C

.-17A.D. ) characterizestheagesofgold,silver,brass,andiron.Hefollows Hesiodverycloselycutomitstheheroicage.Theonlything thatneedbenotedhereisthatOvidconsidersthegoldenageas longpastandthinkshisownageistheiron;buthespeaksasif thedegenerationwerecom.plete.Hesiodthoughthewasatthebe- ginningoftheironageandpicturedthemiserythatwasyetto come.Ovidplacedhimselfwellalonginthislastageandspoke ofallthosethingsashavingalreaiycom.etopass.Hesiodsays, atlastfairmodestyandJusticewillflyandleaveonlysorrow andhopelessness,andthishashappenedwhenOvidwrites,forhe saysthatfaith,piety,andjusticeareinexileandonlyfraud. 12. forceandviolencererrain.Thisindicatesthattherewasanin- creasingtendencyonthepartofthepoetstoconsidertheirown tia-.eastheworsttheworldhadeverseen,andtolookfarth-^rand fartherbackintothepastforanidealagewheretheirspirits mightfindcomfortandsolace.

Wecomenowtooneofthemastinterestingoftheancient

poetsinhisuseofthegoldenagematerial,Virgil(70-19B.C.) isimportantforourpurposesforseveralreasons.Hisconception ofthelifeofthegoldenageisessentiallylikethatofallthe poets;heislikethem,inpicturingthegoldenageasacontrast tothelifehehasexperienced;butheisunliketheminoneim- portantelement-insteadoflookingtothepastheseesthegold- enageintheimjnediatefuture.Thisisanoteworthyexceptionto thegeneralruleandhasastrikingparallelintheeighteenth century .

Theprophecyofthenewageofperfectionisfoundinthe

FourthEclogue.,itistheproductofyouthfulenthusiasmandop- timism.Virgil,assyoungman,witnessedagreatchangeinnation- alaffairs.Itwasthepassingofacrisiswhichgaveanewlease oflifetotheem.piresn\anewhopetothepeople.ThePerusian warhadlaidwastetheland,institutionshadbeentrampledunder foot,businesswasdestroyed,andtheinhabitantsreducedto starvation.ThetreatyofErundisiumibroughtpeace,andanim.- provementwasimjiediat-lyapparent.Oncemorepeoplebeganto throngthemartsoftrade,businesswasrevived,and^.lenty succeededfaiTine.Itwasnaturalthatatsuchatimethefervor ofthepoetshouldhailthereturnofthegoldenage.Hereinis theelementofcontrastwhichwehavefoundasadistinguishing markamongallpoets.Butinthiscaseitissomethingmorethan a"contrast"betweentranquilityimaginedandwoeandwarfare actuallyexperienced."Virgilhadseenthehavocofwarinthe razedcitiesanaruinedfields,heknewtheexpressionofwoeon thefacesofhomelessr;enandwomen-itwas6lL1amatterof firsthandexperienceandindeliblywrittenonhisconsciousness. Hehadseen,too,thesharpantithesisafterpeacewasrestored.

Thebusycities,thefurrowedfields,thehappyhomes,the

cheerfulfaces-allthesewerecombingtobeofhisexperiences. Howinevitablethatunderthesecircumistancestheminiofthe poetshouldgobacktothatgoldenageofthedimrememxbered pastandtransferittothepresent,saying,insubstance:"This isthed&fmofthesecondgoldenage."

Thenewageistobebroughtaboutbythebirthofa

/iOndrouschild.Ashegrows,venemousherbsshallperish,andthe rserpentshalldie.Theplowmanshallabanldonthefield;cornshall i matureuncultivated;fruitshallripenspontaneously;thecattle andthelionshallliedowntogether;blood-guiltinessshalldis- appear;andwarshallbenomore. "Thelastage,heraldedinCymaeansong,iscom.e,andthe greatmarchofthecenturiesbeginsanew.NowtheVirginreturns; nowSaturniskingagain,andanewandbetterracec3escendsfromx onhigh.Onlydothou,pureLucina,deigntosmileonthenascent 14. babe,bywhosegraceourironbreedshallatlastcease,andthe ageofgoldda^nonalltheworld "Onthee,child,ateveryturntheunlaboredearthshall showerhergifts.Theivy-tendrilsshall/vantonwiththefox- glove,andthebeanwiththelaughingbriar.Thegoats,uncalled ^ shallbringhometheirudderbigwithmilk,andthecattleshall notfeart:oegreatlion.Thycradle,even,shallblossomwith smilingflowers;theserpentshallperishandtheherbthathides itspoisonbenomore,andAssyrianspicesshallspringinevery field "Butsoon,whenthestrongyearshavemadetheeman,the sea/ranhimselfshallquitthewave,norshsillanyocean-going barquepasstoandfrowithmerchandise;foreverylandshallbe richwiththefruitsofall.Earthshallnotgroanunderthe harrow,northevineunderthepruninghook;tnehardyploughmian shallloosehisoxenfromtheyoke;woolshallbetaughtnomore tocounterfeitanalienhue,buttheraminhismeadowshall him.selfchangehisfleece-nowforthesweetblushofpurple, anonforthesaffron'syellow-andscarletshallclothethe feedinglambsatwill." SuchweretheconditionswhichVirgilprophesied.Instead ofpicturinganevolutionfror/thegoldtotheironage,hesawa risefromtheironagetothegolden.Hecharacterizesthetwo agesjustasallthepoetsbeforehimhavedone,thedifference I.VirgiltranslatedbyJohnJackson.Oxford,1906.:PourthEclogue,11.4-45. 15. intheirtrcatinentisadifferenceinpointofview.Allthought therr.selvestobelivingintheironageandallsoughtanage ofperfecthappiness.Mostofthepoetsfoundthistimeinthe past,Virgilsaw'thesameconditionsinthefuture.

Buttimeprovedthegreatpoetafalseprophet.The

fabledchilddidnotregeneratesociety;conditionsdidnotbe- comeperfect;theiiealworldofthepoet'sfancydidnotmateri- alize.Soontheglamorbegantofade,thelightofhopedied out,andhui^anity,everasquicktoforgettheoldastoaccept thenew,settledoncemoreintotheeventenorofits"v'ay,con- tenttothinkofthegoldenageasagloryofthepast,impossible forthepresentorthefuture.Virgil,himself,growingwiseras hegrewolder,ceasedtopredicttheimjriediatereturnoftheage ofSaturn.Theonlytraceoftheprophecyofthefourth"Eclogue thatwefindintheAeneidisahopefortheReignofPeace.

Wehavetracedtheideaofthegoldenagefrom:thetime

itfirsttookformoutofthepaganmythologydoA-nthroughthe GreekandEomanpoetstotheChristianera.Asaresultofthis surveythreeconclusionsmaybedraRna.First,thecharacteristics ofthegoldenage.Itisalwaysconsideredasatim:eofpeace, plenty,happiness,andinnocence.Allthepoetsuniteingiving itsom.eoftheseattributes.Second,themiotiveforwritingof thegoldenage.Ineachcaseitwasnoticeablethattherewasa decidedcontrastbetweentheconditionsin?vhichthepoetlived 16. andthosewhichhepicturedinthegoldenage.Hewasdepressed bythegrossrealityofactuallifeandfoundreliefinthe idealityofafanciedlife.Itwasalongingtoescapefromop- pressionintofreedom?vhichcausedthepoetstomarkthecontrast betweentheirageandamythicalageofhappiness,andtodesig- natethesetimesastheironandgoldenages.Third,thetimeof existenceofthegoldenage.?Iesiodco^isideredittohavebeen farinthepast.Asyearspassedeachsucceedingpoetthoughthis ofmtimiefart::erandfartherremovedfromiit.Theyalllooked backuponitwithasighandwishedtheyhadlivedthen.Upto Virgil'stimienoonehadheldforthanyhopeofthefuturereali- zationofthegoldenage.Butthisiswhathedi^,andtherein cam.eanewelem.entwhichwaslaterdeveloped.Itshouldbere- memibered,however,thatthiswasaprophecyoftheimm.ediate returnofthegoldenage,andthatitwasnotsoonfollowedby othersimilarpredictions.

ChapterTwo.

EIGHTF'I'INTHC-^WTUEYIMITATORS,

Ita.aybetrulysaidthatthereneverwasatinieinthe

historyofliteraturetjhennaturewaswhollyignored.Yetit cannotbeassertedthattheimportancegivenitthroughsuccessive periodsofliteraryhistoryisbyanymeansaconstantfactor. Thepartplayedbyexternalnatureintheliteratureofdifferent a^{esmaybecom.paredtotheebbandflowofthetides.Atone tic.epoetsareenthusiasticadmirersofnatureandtheirverse isfilledwiththebeautiesofruralscenery.Atanother,the attentionoftheleadingliterarymeniscenteredinpoliticsor religion,andsatireandmoralitycrowdnatureoutoftheirverse, Milton'sverseisanexamipleofthehightideofnaturepoetry. TheliteratureofPope'sageniaybeconsideredtheebbtide, whileitrosetofloodtideagainintheageofWordsworth.Yet Pope'spoetryisnotwithoutnatureallusions,suchastheyare. Thelifeofthegoldenage,asitwasdepictedbytheClassical poets,wasessentiallythelifeofthecountry.'Fnereverthere areimiitationsofthislifetheremustbesomiCacquaintancewith ruralconditions.AnunderstandingofthetypicalAugustanatti- tudetowardnaturewillmakemoreclearthene^'pointofvieA laterinthecentury,a:.dproveavaluableaidinappreciating theobstaclesagainstAhichtherisingromanticschoolhadto contend.

Itoftenhappensthatsomeman,who,bygenius,forceof

circumstances,or?/hatnot,becomestheleaderinacertain 17. 18. moYement,orthespokesjr.anforit-adherents,isgivencredit forestablishingtheprinciplesofthatmovementwhen,asarr.at- teroffact,hemayhavehadnothingtodoA'ithitinthebegin- ning.Thisisveryn.ucnthecasewithPope(1688-1744).Buthe mustnotbethoughtofasformingtheAugustantasteintoalove forthecityandadislikeforthecountry.Thetendencyinthat directionexistedbeforePope.Heonlygaveitexpressionm polishedliteraryform.Indeed,asayouthhehadarealappre- ciationofnature,whichleadsonetobelievethatinanotherage underdifferentconditions,hewouldhavebeenadifferentman inliterature.InalettertoCromwell,datedJuly17,1709,he says:"Havingavacantspacehere,Iwillfillitwitiaashort OdeonSolitude(/.hichIfoundyesterdaybygreataccidentand whichIfindbythedatewaswrittenwhenIwasnotyettwelve yearsold),thatyoumayperceivehowlongIhavecontinuedin m.ypassionforarurallife,andinthesameemploymentsofit.'*-^ Theloveofsolitudeexpressedinth^Odeisworthyoneofthe romanticistshalfacenturylater.

AnotherinterestingproductionofthisperiodofPope's

lifeishisPastorals,/;ith_aDiscourseonPastoral,written in1704,butnotpublisheduntil1709.TheDiscoursehasa directbearingonoursubject,andapartofitwillbequoted. "Theoriginal^poetryisascribedtothatageif»hichsucceeded thecreationoftheworld:andasthekeepingofflocksseemsto

1.TheworksofAlexanderPope.Newedition.WithintroductionsandnotesbyRev.WhitwellEl/.in.In10voluriies.London,1871.Vol.IV,c.407,n.l.

19 havebeenthefirstemployirentofirankind,themostancientsort ofpoetry»?asprobablypastoral.Itisnaturaltoima-ginethatthe leisureofthoseancientshepherdsadirdttingandinvitingsome diversion,noneiftassopropertothatsolitaryandsedentarylife assinging;andthatintheirsongstheytookoccasiontocele- bratetheirornifelicity.Fromhenceapoemi"rasinvented,and afierwardsimprovedtoaperfectimageofthathappytime;which, bygivingusanesteemforthevirtuesofaformerage,mdght recofiJTiendthemtothepresent.If"v'ewouldcopynature,itmiay beusefultotakethisideaalongwithus,thatpastoralisan imageofiR'hattheycallthegoldenage.Sothaty/earenotto describeourshepherdsasshepherdsatthisdayreallyare,but astheym:aybeconceivedthentohg.vebeen;whenthebestofmen foll07*'edtheem.ploym.ent."1

Popeheregiveshisconceptionofthegoldenage.Itis

essentiallythatoftheClassicalpoets:a.lifeofsimplicity, leisure,andfelicity.Suchatim;eexistedjustafterthecreation oftheiT/orld,itisnotpossibleno'iiv,butthatsenseofcontrast givesan"esteemforthevirtuesoftheformierage."Henceitis thedutyoftheeighteenthcenturypoettopicturethat"formier age"andnotcontemporaryconditions.Forthereexistsavast differencebetweentheshepherdsthenandnow.Inthosedays everybodylivedinthecountryandthebestmienwereshepherds. ButintheAgeofAnnethebestmienwerecity"wits",andonly therudeandtheunculturedhadanythingtodowithflocks.This

1.Ibid,vol.I,p.258.

20. wastheattitudeofhisageinregardtothecountryandrural pursuits,andPopewasonlydriftingwiththetidewhenhemade hisPastoralstellthestoryofGreekratherthan"Englishshep- herds.

Oneofthewatchwordsoftheromanticmovementwas"hack

tonature".It"beganwiththefirstofthenev/orderandcontinued downthroughthecenturywitheverincreasingstrength.The phraseissingularlyambiguousandmeantvariousthingswith differentmen.Perhapsasoftenasanythingelse,itwasacall toreturntotheconditionsofIxfeinthegoldenage.Pope anticipatedthisphaseoftheromanticmovementwhenheused natureandthegoldenageaspracticallysynonymous.However,he didnotfollowitupbyadvocatingthatEnglishmienreturnto thegoldenage.Kewascontenttoletthatremainafancyofthe past ,

InhisintroductiontothePastorals,Elwinsays,"the

goldenagewasitselfanexplodedfable,whichhadlostitshold ontheimagination1-adreambywhichEnglishmeninthe eighteenthcenturycouldnothavebeenbeguiled.'A"henthe prophecyoftheFourthEcloguefailedoffulfillm-entthedream ofthegoldenagem^ayhavebeendrivenfrom',themundsofsom^e people,butitneverlostitsholdontheimagination.Instead, theimaginationwassuppressedandnotallowedfreereign.Ifthe eighteenthcenturygentlemanhadnointerestinafanciedage ofbliss,itwasbecausehestudiedtocurbhisimiaginationand

1.Ibid.Vol.I,p.247

21.
checktheflightsoffancy.Butwhenthereactionariescameto thefrontandgaveunbridleds*aytotheemotions,peopleaecain "becameinterestedinthepatriarchalage.The"explodedfatle" wasnotrehabilitated;imaginationsimplycameintoitsownand broughtitsinevitableconcom.itant,thedreairiofthegoldenage.

TwoothereffortsofPope'searlylifearetobenotedin

thisconnection.ThefirstpartofWindsorForest(toline291) waswrittenin1704.Thelatterpart^^asnotaddeduntil1713,in j^'hichyearitA-aspublished.Thereisadecideddifferencein thetwopartsofthepoem..Thefirst,writtenaboutthetimieof thePastorals,aboundsinnaturetouchesandhintsofthegolden age.Tneseelementsweienotinkeepingwiththestandardvferse oftheday,andtheyweresonumerousthatAddisonthoughtto counteracttheirpossibleeffectoncontemporariesandatthesame timedefendtheestablishedorder,byiA'arningthepoets,ina good-naturedway,againstintroducing"triflingantiquatedfables unpardonableinapoetthatwaspastsixteen".-^Fopeseemisto tohavetakenthisadvicetohiL.self,forinthelastofthepoem^, writtennineyaarslater,theseobjectionablefeaturesare conspicuooislyabsent.

TheMessiahfirstappearedintheSpectatorforMay14,

1712,lTo.378.ItisanadaptationofthepropheciesofIsaiahand

Virgil'sFourthEclogue.Popeclasseditan-^ongthePastorals becauseitisapropheticvisionofagoldenage.Yetitis hardlycom.parabletoeitheroftheoriginalsbecauseitisso

1.Ibid,Q,^-OtedVol.I,p.331.

22.
filleiwiththeaffectedandstilteddictionoftheday.Itwas, however,contrarytotheprevailingspiritoftheageinsubject atleast.FopeAastecorr.ingsothoroughlyiiTibaedwiththatspirit thathepuhlighedtheMessiahasfro/athepenofanotherm^n,"a greatgenius,afriendofmine,inthecountry."-^

Frorr.thistimeonPopewasthetypicalexponentofthe

conventionalityanddecorurrofhisage.Thirtyyearsafterthe tirr.eofthePastorals,hereferstotnestateofnature,inthe EssayonMan,^Theconditionsof/r.aninthegoldenage,with refeiericetohabitsoflife,arestated,butcoldlystated. Thereisnopictureofthefelicitiesofthatage,nodescription ofthebeautiesofnature;thebarefactsarecatalogued,and thatJ.Sall.Hedoesnotadvocateareturntothestateofnature; heseesnohopeofitsrealizationbyfuturegenerations.Row ' differentlythisthemewastreatedr:alfacenturylater!

Itisinterestingtonotxcetheinfluenceofthepre-

dominantspiritoftheageuponPope.Thekeynoteofthatspirit wasconformitytocustom.Thisextendedintoallfields,dress, religion,politics,literature.Ineverythingitwasrr.oreamatter offormthanoffeeling.Infact,emotionandimiaginationwere tabooed.AhenFopeindulgedhisfancyindrearr.softhegoldenage, inthePastorals,hewasnotconforming.Euthisextremeyouth excusedhimi.Comm.entin'^onthisperiodofPope'slife,Johnson

1.ibid.Vol.I,p.307.

2.SpxstleIII,SectionIV,lines147ff

. 23
says:"itseemsnaturalforayoungpoettoimitatehimselfby pastorals,which,notprofessingtoimitatereallife,requireno experience,andexhibitingonlythesimpleoperationofunmixed passions,admitnosubtlereasonini^:ordeepinquiry."!Pastoral isanimageofthegoldenage.Itrepresentsanidealexistence. Totreatsuchasubjectrequirestheindulgenceoftheimagi- nation.Thisalonewassufficienttocauseittobecondemnedby theeighteenthcenturyclassicists.Popeundoubtedlyhadgenius inthisdirection,butitwasthwartedorturnedintoother channelsbythepowerfulandall-pervadingspiritofClassicism. Aloveforthegoldenagecouldbecondonedonlyinyouth,when "subtlereasoninganddeepinquiry"werenottobeexpected.One cansometimesalmostbelievethattheprecisegentlemenofthe eighteenthcenturyhadneverbeenchildren.Withsobervoiceand solemnmientheyurgeyouthtoputawaychildishthingsandtake onthesedateairofage.Theunconventionalityofchildhood mustgivewaytothedignityofmeinhood.Theromanticist,onthe otherhand,revelsinthenaivete^ofchildhood.Nomatterwhat externalforcesarebroughttobear,therewillalwaysbemenwho remainchildrenathearteventhougholdinyears.ThisPope couldnotdo.Itwasallbutimpossibleinhisage.Whenhefell inwiththeliteraryvanguardoftheearlycentury,imagination andflightsoffancywereplacedunderbanandhegotfartherand fartherawayfromthesimiplicityofyouth.Theidealsoftheage

1.TheWorksofSa/r.uelJohnson.Ed.Rev.RobertLynam.Six

voluxries.London,1525.Vol.IV,p.252. 24.
foundsuchcompleteandpolishedexpressioninhisversethat todayeighteenthcenturyclassicismandPopearealmostsyn- onymous.

PopewasnottheonlyimitatoroftheClassicalpoets.

Nearlyallthepseudo-classicistsoftheeighteenthcenturymade someattemptatcopyingtheancients.WhileSwift(1667-1745 ) isbestknownbyhisprose,hisverseisextremelycharacteristic oftheage.Hisimitationsaresuchinnameratherthancontent andhewhollymissesthespiritoftheoriginal.InOctober,1710, thereappearedintheTatler,ArescriptionofaCityShower.Ih imitationofVirgil*sGeorgics.Itisalmiostatravestyonthe Romann.astertothinkofhim,asdescribingacityshower.He lovedthecountryandhisinterestwasinruralscenes.But SwiftprobablylovedthecityquiteasmiUch.Hisinterestwasin thingsurbanandhewaswritingforacityaudience.

Anotherinstanceofthenamewithoutthething,ishis

TownEclogue,1710.Theverydefinitionofeclogue-"animitation ofthepastorallifeofashepherd"^-excludesitfromanysuch corr/fcination.Yetitshowsthesentimentoftheageandindicates thattherewasatendencytotransferthenomenclatureofthe countrytothecity.Therewasanattempttobuildthetown intoesteemasapoeticalsubject,andtothisendthefamiliar ruraltitleswereused.Hotonlywasthisdoneinapositive m.anner-byrecoo-jr.endingthecity,but,inanegativeway-by

1.Webster'sNe^InternationalDictionary,1910."Eclogue".

25
discreditingthecountry.In1725SwiftwrotetheBlessingsofa CountryLife.Herecountsthefelicitiesofrurallife,andsair,s upitsbenefitsinasatiricalcoupletwhichisapractical,mat- ter-of-factstatementofthecasefromthepointofviewofa proudcityresident: "Farfromourdebtors;noDublinletters;

Fotseenbyourbetters."^

Hespentapartofasuxnir.erinthecountryandwroteapoem, TheCountryLife,celebratingtheevent.Hespeaksoftheweeds androcks,tellsho?/someofthecompanymadethemselvessickby beinggluttonou.s,andrelatessuchincidentsofanearlywalkas toesbruisedonthestonesandshinscrackedinclimbingthe hedges,Forhi.Titherearenosingingbirds,orbeautifulflowers orlaughingbrookstowhisperofthelifeofhappinessandcon- tentrfient.Citylifeisthegoldenageforhim.

Gay(1685-1732)wasthefriendandadmirerofPope.He

perhapshadagreaterappreciationof,andlovefor,thecountry thanhisdistinguishedfriend,buthewastoomuchunderthe influenceofthetimetotecomieapoetofnature.In1713he dedicatedtoPopehisRuralSports:AGeorgic.Itisapoemin twocantosrecitingthepastimesofthecountryswains.The conclusionwillgiveGay'sattitudetowardhisage: "Yehappyfields,unknowntonoiseandstrife.

Thekindrewardersofindustriouslife;

1.Swift'sPoeticalWorks.Ed.Rev.JohnMitford.London,1902.Vol.Ill,p.304.

26.

Yeshadyvvoods,whereonceIus'dtorove,

Alikeindulgenttothemuseandlove;

Yemuitoiuringstreamsthatinmeandersroll,

Thesweetcomposersofthepensivesoul;

Farewell:-Thecitycallsmefron*yourbossrers;

Farewell,amusingthoughtsandpeacefulhours."-^

ItwillbeseenthatGaylookeduponthelifeofthecountryfrom anewstandpoint.Hereallyappreciateditasaretreatfromthe noiseandstrifeofindustriallife.Butthespiritoftheage spoketohiminthecallofthecity,andheansweredthecall. Hetookalongfarewell-and,wefancy,areluctantone-ofthe ruralscenesheloved,andplungedintothecity.Theeffectof thenewatmospherewasimmediatelyapparent.In1714hepublished TheShepherd'sWeek,insixPastorals.Itisanavowedattempt todiscreditthebeliefthat"pastoralisanim.ageofthegolden age".Heasys,"mylovetomynativecountry(Britain)much prickethmeforward,todescribearightthemannersofourown honestandlaboriousploughmen,innowise,3ure,moreunworthy aBritishpoet'simitation,thanthoseofSicilyorArcadia; albeit,norignorantIam.,whataroatandrabbiemientofcritical gallimaw-fryhatnbeenmadeoflatedaysbycertainyoungmenof insipiddelicacy,concerning,Iwistnotwhat,goldenage,and otheroutrageousconceits,towhichtheywouldconfinepastoral.

Wherof,Iavow,Iaccountnoughtatall...2.

1.PoeticalWorksofJohnGay,inBritishPoets,vol.VIII.RuralSDorts,p.26?.CantoII.11,163-170.

2.Ibid."ProemetotheCourteousReader,"prefixedtoShepherd'sWeek.p.272.

Thepoemgive*theeventsofsixdaysinthelivesofthe

Shepherds.ThesceneislaidinEngland,thecharactersare Englishmen,andtheyspeakthecommonlanguageofruralEngland. Thedetailsaresogiventhatthevulgarityandignoranceof rurallifeareshow-ninalltheirgrossnessandrepulsiveness. purposewastoblastthedreamofanidealgoldenagein connectionwiththelivesofshepherds.

GaycontinuedhisiconoclasminthePrologue,designed

forthepastoraltragedyofDiane.Hedescribesthefelicities fthegoldenage: "Thennaturerul'd;andlove,devoidofart,

Spoketheconsentinglanguageoftheheart.

Thenbeastsroamedfree,there77erenotyra/itla/^s,naturetaught theswain.Buthecastsajeeratthisstateofthings:"Such harmlessswains.'"'^edoesnotsishforthegoldenage,heis contentwithhisowntime.Suchanattackonthisfancyofthe imaginationpleasedthewitsofthecoffeehousebecauseit aidedtheircause.

Incidentally,itnaybementioned,thatinthePrologue

Gayexpressesoneofthefundarrientalreasonsforaninterestin thegoldenage. "'Tistherestraintthatwhetsourappetite."^

1.Ibid.Prologue,designedforthepastoraltragedyofDione.

p.323 .

2,Ibid.

28.
TheClassicalpoetsescapedfromtherestraintoftneirownreal existenceintotheimaginarylifeofthegoldenage.Eecausethey AereconfinedandbounddoA-ntoaharshandcruelworldthey soughtreleaseinaworldoftheimagination.Bydiscoantenancin^z thegoldenageandridiculingimagination,Gaywasbindingthe peopledowntoreality.Hewashelpingtoforgethechainof reasonanddecorumwhichheldhisagetoacontemplationofthe actualandreal,andkeptitwithinthecitywherenatural beautieswereunknown.Hewaswhettingtheappetiteforthose tningsthatweredenied.Intim»etheshacklesbegantogall.One dayimaginationflewthebonds,reasonbegantoloseitshold, andthechainwasbroken.

ChapterThree.

HlIGHTEENTHCEHTUEYROMANTICISTS.

Itre/r;ainedforapoetofthenorthofScotland,born

andrearedamongthoseromanticsceneswhichwerelatertotoe madeimmortalintheMinistrelsyoftheBorder,todealthefirst effectiveblowtothecoldformalismofPope,Swift,Gay,and theirschool.JamesThomson-'-(1700-1748)wasborninthepastoral villageofSdnam,Roxburghshire.Shortlyafterthepoet'sbirth, hisfathermovedtoSouthdean.ThereTho^ssongrewupinthe centerofScotland'srichestandmostvariedscenery.Hewas muchoutofdoorssuidthesublimegloriesofnatureweresilently butin^Vradicablydaguerreotypeduponhismind.

AsayoungmanThomsonhadanambitiontoenterthe

church.DuringhisUniversitylifehewrotepoetryinsecret,and carriedonhistheologicalstudies.Hewastoomuchunderthe influenceoftheMusetobeadmittedintothechurchinthose days.Hissermonswerecriticisedbecausethey/.eretooimagina- tive.Disappointedbecauseofthisfailure,hewentthewayof alltheyoungmenofhistimewithliteraryabilityorambition- toLondon.In1725hearrivedtherepooranddestitute.Bythe assistanceoffriendsheobtainedaplaceastutortothesonof LordBining,butwithacompetencebarelysufficientforhis support.Herehebegan»yritingWinter(July1725).Althoughcon-

1,BiographicaldatatakenfromDictionaryofNationalBiography,NewYork,1908,aniIntroductiontothePoeticalWorksofJamesThorr.son.TUd.Rev.GeorgeGilfillan.Edinburgh,1353.

29
30.
finedtothecity,theapproacjofautumncausedhismindtogo backtothewoodsandfields.Thethoughtsoftheharvestseason touchedthesecretspringsofhissoul,andthepent-upimageryof hisromanticchildhoodoverflowedinthesonorousstrainsofthe firstoftheSeasons.Inithissoulescapedfromthedepression anddisappointmentofcitylifeandrevelledinthehappyfreedom ofhisnativeheath.Thisisanewelementintheliteratureof escape.Insteadoffleeingtosomefanciedgoldenageofthelong ago,thepoetfindsthesamereliefandcomfortinacontemplation ofexternalnature.Itisthe"beginningofthemovementwhichis csilledthe"returntonature",butitgoesbackforitsinspira- tiontothepoeticalconceptionofthemythologicalgoldenage.

Thiswassomethingnewinthepoetryofthecentury,and

asWinterwenttheroundsofthebooksellersinmanuscript,they mighthavebeenheardtoremark-"veryelegantpoem,butnotin ourline;toomuchdescriptioninit;alittlewitwouldimprove it;could.notMr.ThomsonwritesomethinginthestyleofPope orGay?-thatwouldbesuretotake".-'-Andjustherebeganthe strugglebetweenthe"styleoft'opeorGay"andthatotherstyle with"toomuchdescriptioninit",whichwasdestinedtodividethe literaryworldintotwohostilecair.ps.Itwasthebeginningofthe revoltofromanticismagainstthepseudo-classicismoftheeight- eenthcentury-arevoltthathasgonetosuchanextremethat thereisatendency,insomeofourleadingUniversities,towards acounter-reactionagainsttheultra-romanticismofmodernwriters.

1.Thomson'sPoeticalWorks,IntroductionXI.

Thebooksellersthoughttheyknewthe"trade"andcould

tellwhatwaswanted,butthesuccessofthispoemprovedthat theyhadnotsoundedthecurrentofpublictastetoitsgreatest depth.'Mienthesellerswerefinallyprevailedupon,bytheimpor tunitiesofThomson'sfriends,topublishWinter,itbecame immediatelypopular.Itwasrecommendedbysomeoftheleading menoftheday,andranthroughthreeeditionsthefirstyear. Thenfollowedinquicksuccession,Summer,1727;Spring,1728; Autumn,andacompleteeditionoftheSeasons,1730,"roundedoff withthatgloriousHymnifeichseemstheessenceoftheirbeauty collectedintoacloudoffragrance,and,ledbythebreathof devotion,directeduptoheaven"."^Withthisthefirstlinkin thechainthatheldtheimaginationwasbroken.Otherpoetsfol- lowedinthenewspirit.Takingthesentimentofatrueappreci- ationofnature,anewattitudetowardthegoldenage,anda humanitarianfeeling,fromThomson,theybuiltanewliterature whicheffectivelycombattedthatoftheschoolofPope.

Mostofthecharacteristicsoftheromanticmovementare

foundinembryoinThomson.TheSeasons,perhaps,embodiesmore ofthemthananyothersinglepoemofthecentury.InSpringhe hasadigressiononthemythologicalgoldenage.Hepicturesits innocence,itshappiness,itshealth,anditsfreedomfromdeath, rapine,andbloodshed.But,liketheClassicalpoets,hethinks heislivingintheironage.

T~Ibid.XIiI,

"Butnowthosewhite,unblemishedrranners,whence

Thefablingpoetstooktheirgoldenage,

Arefoundnomoreamidtheseirontimes,

Thesedregsoflife!"1

Instead,reasonishalfextinct;AngerandRevengeroveatlarge; Env^blightsJoy;andFearweakensmanhood;manhaslostallsen- tim^entsofm.ercyandkindnesstowardshisfellowsandtowards dumbbeasts.Itwasnotsointhegoldenage,forthenmanwas humaneaswellashun-ajn;itoughtnottobesonow,forman shouldbe "Thelord,andnotthetyrant,oftheworld".^ Thisisthebeginningofthespiritofhumanitarianismiwhichbe- cameprominentwiththeromsinticists-thespiritwhichcaused Cowpertorefusetonumberamonghisfriendsanyonewhoneedlessly crushedaworm;thespiritwhichthrobsinthetenderlines TQaMouse,onturni-nguphernestwiththeplow.^Thepoetsdrew theirinspirationfromthegoldenagewhentherewasnocrimeor violence,andcriedoutagaistthethoughtlessinhumianityof theirowntime.

IfThomsonisnotarefinedpoetofspirituality,heis

apoetofthesublimityofnature.Amonghisbestnaturedes- criptionsisthatoftheTorridZone,inSummer.Hedescribes

1.Ibid.Spring,1.273ff.

2.Ibid.1.242.

3.Burns.

33
theluxuriantvegetationandexcellentfruitsinawaythat refflindsoneim.a:ediatelyofthegoldenageintheglegiesof Propertius.Itwouldseemthathehadsuchamodelinmindfor heconcludesthus: "Witness,thoubestAnana,thouthepride

Ofvegetablelife,beyondwhate'er

Thepoetsimagedinthegoldenage."-'-

AnotherinstanceofprobableClassicalinfluencemaybedrawn fromthesamepoem.Hedescribesthe"wondrouswasteofwealth"^ infruitsandflo7/ers,the"gayprofusionofluxuriousbliss"^ whilelivinginthelavishdisplayand"pompofNature"'^where "Afric'sgoldenriversroll"^,anditrivalstheGreekBeign ofCronusandtheLatinAgeofSaturn.Justhowmuchthegolden ageimageryoftheClassicalpoetsinfluencedhim.intoese flightsoffancy,Aemaynotsay.Atanyrate,itisobvious thattheinfluenceisthere.Itisnotm.erelyobjective,forhe catchesthespiritoftheancients.^ITiilePopeandhisschool onlystripthesurface-feelingsofformandwordsfromtheClass- icalpoetswhodealtwiththegoldenage,Thomsonreadsbetween thelinesandbehindthemi,andtransmitsthefeelingsandunder- lyingsentim.entswhichformthebasisoftheuniversalappeal ofthegoldenage.

1.Thomson'sPoeticalWorks,Summer,1.690ff

2.Ibid.1.869.

3.Ibid.1.870

4.Ibid.1.671.

5.Ibid.1.882.

34.

DespitethefactthatThomsonlamentsthatheisliving

intheironagewhenTruth,Virtue,andHonorareunknoAn,he thinksthereisaplace,eveninhisowntime,whereconditions approxixratethoseofthegoldensige.Theancientclassicalpoets (alwaysexceptingVirgil)thoughttheywerelivingintheironage

Theylookeduponthegoldenageasatimelongpastandhadno

hopeofeverrealisingitsconditionsintheirearthlylives. Theeighteenthcenturyclassicistsfollowedtheancientsinthis respect.Theytoo,sawthegoldenageinthepastandonlythe ironageinthepresent.ButThomsongoesastepinadvance. Sxistingsidebysidewiththeironage,orthecommonlifeof thecity,aretheconditionsofthegoldenage,orlifeinthe country.Thisgoldenagemayhemoreinthemindsofmenthanin alavishdisplayofnature,hutitexistsnonethelesstruly. Hereitislargelysubjective,whereasthemythologicalgolden agewasconsideredobjectively.Promthistim.eforwardpoetsfind thegoldenagewhereverconditionsareconducivetohappiness, quiet,undisturbedmeditation,andfreedom,ofimagination.Such conditionsdonotexistinthecity,hencetheyseekthecountry, whichisoftenendowedwiththenaturalbounties,andalwayswith thepsychologicalelemients,ofthemythicalgoldenage.Thomson isthefirsttoassumethisnewattitude.Hisideamaybegiven briefly.Heisthehappiestofmenwholivesfarfrompublic strifeandenjoysthepleasuresofrurallifeintheretire/rent ofapastoralvalley.There,withhim,dwellTruth,Innocence, Beauty,andYouth.Therehemaysitinundisturbed.neditationand 35.
lethisimaginationcarryhimwhithersoeveritwill, "ThisisthelifelArhichthosewhofretinguilt,

Andguiltycities,neverknew;thelife

Ledbyprimevalages,uncorrupt,

Whenangelsdwelt,andGodhimself,withman".-^

Thomsonspokefromexperience.Hehadenjoyedthehappy

lifeofacountryswainwhileheroamedthehillsofromantic Scotland,'flhenhefirotetheSeasons,hewasconfinedinthecity "likeacagedlinnet",""ashetellsus.Therethenoiseandstrife emphasized,bycontrast,thehappinessofhisrurallife.Tore- turntoitwouldbetrulytoenterthegoldenage.Thisappealed tothepeopleofhisagewhowerebeginningtofretinthebonds ofReasonandDecorum,becauseitofferedanavenueofescape froiibondagetofreedom,inmindas/.ellasinbody.Therelief whichhepointedoutwasinanescapetonature.Itmeantthe

1eavingofthecity,whereitwasimpropertodream;dreamsand

seevisions,andtheenteringofthecountrywherethewildness andabandonofnatureAereconducivetoafreeswayoftheimagi- nation.Inshort,itwastoenjoythefelicitiesofthegolden age.Thecallto"returntonature"wasansweredwitheverin- creasingavidity,untilthe"country"becameasmuchacultas the"city"hadbeenatthebeginningofthecentury.

1.ibid.Autumn,1.1349ff.

2.Ibid.

TheCastleofIndolenceisabeautifulpoeticalillusion.

ThefirstCanto,especially,isabeivltchingpieceofseductive imagery,"nohymntoSleepeverwassosoft-'nodreamwithin adrea.^-'ofrestbeyondthedreamingland,wraseversosubtle". ThefirstCantoinaybeconsideredtheproductofthepoet'sun- hamperedgenius,whenimaginationhadtherightof/.ay.Itisan accountofamysticallifeofindolenceinanillusorycastle somewhereinthedreairJandofpoeticfancy.Theinmatesarepris- onersbuthavenodesiretoescape.Theyliveinindolencewith allpleasuresattheirdisposal. "Theironlylaborwastokillthetime".^ Inthecourtsweregardensofsweetsmellingflowers,andonthe wallshungbeautifulpictures.Theonewhichattractedthemost attentiondepictedthePatriarchalAge-thegoldenageofthe

Hebrews.

Theobjectofthispartofthepoemseemstobethe

praiseofindolence.Onecharacteristicofthegoldenageisthat thereisnoneedofwork.Thisiswhysomepeopleareattracted toit.Itisnothardtoimaginethatthisisoneelementwhich appealedtoThomson,whenwethinkofhimstrollingabouthis garden,handsclaspedbehindhim,eatingoffthesunnysideof thepeacnesastheyhungonthetrees.Butthetimewasnotyet ripeforsuchapoemtogounchallenged.Probablyattheinsti- gationoffriends,orbeca.^seofthepromptingsofhisown

1.Ibid.Introduction,XVil.

2.ibid.CastleofIndolence,CantoI,SectionLXII.

37.
conscience,thepoetaddedthesecondCanto.Itrelatesthebirth andeducationofaKnightofArtsandIndustry»i'hoattacksand overthrowstheCastleofIndolenceandfreestheprisoners,who areinstructedtolahorfortheirlivlihood.

ThehistoryQftheCastleofIndolenceisparalleledhy

thehistoryofthegoldenageideauptothesecondquarterof theeighteenthcentury.Thomson,thepoeticalgenius,createda greatcastlewherepeoplelivedinhappyindolence;theaiThomson, thepracticalmanoftheworld,createdtheKnightofArtsand Industrywhodestroyedthecastle.Sotheclassicalpoetscreated thefancyofthegoldenageandtookgreatdelightinfleeingto itasarestfromtherealitiesoftheworld.TheCastleoftheir imaginationwasapastorallandofsimplicity,happiness,and idleness.Ascivilizationadvancedandthepeopleturnedfromthe careofflockstocommerceandlousinesspursuits,thesethings "becameofgreaterimportancethanpoeticalimages.Wnenthemater- ialisticspirittriumphedthedreaii:ofthegoldenagewaslargely ignored-theCastlewasdestroyed,becausepeople/.eretoomuch engrossedwiththepracticalaffairsoflifetoindulgeinim- practicablefanciesoftheimagination.Thiswasthestatusofthe goldenageatthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury.Bygiving freereigntotheimaginationandignoringpurelymaterialand practicalconsiderationsThomsonhelpedtobringthegoldenage againintofavor.Throughthemediumof.hispoetryherebuilt thedreamicastleoftheancientclassicalpoets,andfromhis 38.
timeon,asteadilyincreasingnumberofpeoplefindinita refagefromthedinandtumultraisedbytheillustriousKnight ofArtsandIndustry. Thomsonbrokea?/ayfromtheestablishedorder.Hebrought imaginationandnatureintoeighteenthcenturypoetry.Theywere oldelements,butnewintheliteratureofhistime.Consequently hewas,atfirst,alonevoicecryinginthewilderness.Butit wasnotlonguntilotherpoetsbegantoechohiscry.Foratime theydidnotstand,ashehadstood,indirectoppositionto thepreTailingcurrent.Thefirstinstanceoftheuseofthero- manticmaterialintroducedbyThomson,isindidacticpoems.The poets,ingeneral,A-eretoomuchundertheinfluenceoftheold schooltobreakentirelyaway,andyettheyrecognizedthenew tendenciesandsoughttoembodythemintheirwork.Thephaseof theromanticn.ovementwhichhastodowiththegoldenageand whichismostconspicuousintheseearlypoems,isthereturnto nature,bywhichismeantareturntothecountry.Thecontrast betweenthecountryandthecity//asapparenttoall,butthe greatadvantagesofalifeinthecountrywerenotsoclearly seenbytheeighteenthcentury"gentleiran"asbytheyoungro- manticist.Itisnotsurprisingthen,thattheearlypoetsofthe newjtnovementshouldbeginbyendeavoringtokeepinthegood gracesofboth.Fnatvehiclewasbetteradaptedtothispurpose thanthedidacticpoeiL?Itisnottobeunderstood,however,that Somerville,Akenside,andtheotherdidacticpoets,//ereconscious lyaidingtheromanticmovementbysubtlyintroducingthereturn 39
tonatureinapoemthatwasobviouslyclassical(theteriris usedinitscom/nonlyacceptedeighteenthcenturymeaning-/r.ore properlypseudo-classical)inspiritasA-ellasform.Farfromit. Thenewelementscreptintothepoemsunconsciously,dueperhaps totheauthor'shabitofmindortohisvocationinlife.Atany rate,thefactthattheyarethereisabundantproofthatthenew spiritwasintheairandthatitwasgainingaholduponthe risingpoetsoftheage.Anexa^dnationofafewofthesepoems vvillservetorr.akeclearthetreatmentofthegoldenageidea arr.ongthesemi-classicwriters. Somerville's(1692-1742)Chase(1735),adidactictreatiseon thehunt,hasatouchofthe"returntonature"sentiment. "0happy;ifyeknewyourhappystate,

Yerangersofthefield;whomnatureboon

Cheerswithnersmiles,andeveryelemient

Conspirestobless".

Thepoetnof/hereopenlyadvocatesareturntonature,buthe praisesthecountrypeopleandthelivestnejlive.Eedrawsthe contrastbetweenthefree,openrurallife,andthecrowdedcon- ditionofthecity.Itmaybethattheruralsr/ainhasnobeauti- fulworksofartonwhichtogaze,buthecanfeasthissoulon thebeautiesofnature.Itisplainlyseenwhichwaythepoet's trueinterestlies,yetthecalltoreturntonatureis onlyimplied.

1.PoeticalWorksofWilliamSomerville,inBritishPoets,

Vol.VIII.Sk.IV,p.473.

40.

MarkAkenside(1721-1770),adoctorandapoet,wrotethe

poemwhichwastheoriginalofthelonglineofverseunderthe captionofvarious"Pleasures".HisPleasuresofImagination(1744 hasgreatbeautyinitsdescriptions.Thetitleisextremely suggestiveofthenewmovementinliterature.Imaginationhad beensuppressedaschildishandunworthyagentleman.Itwasnever tobeindulged,reasonshouldruleallactionsandwords.Thata practicalmanoftheworldshould,in1738,writeapoemextoll- ingthepleasuretobefoundinimagination,isaninteresting commentaryontheprogressofthenewmovement.Vi/nilethepoem ismorephilosophicalthanimaginative,itsromanticcharacter- isticsaretheallusionstotheclassicalgoldenage,the enthusiastictouchesofnature,and,mostimportantofall, thetitle.

Anotherphysician-poetisJohnAr/r^strong(1709-1779)

. HispoemhastheverypracticaltitleTheArtofPreservingHealtti (1744).Inthefirstbook,entitledAir,headvocatesthecountry life.Hecallsuponthepeopleofthecitytogetoutintothe pureairofthecountrywhereElysianbreeze:-^blow.Hespeaks fromthepointofviewofaphysician,notaromanticpoet,but herecognizesthejoyandhappinessofrurallifeaswellasthe health-givingqualitiesofthecountry.InExercisehecommiends outdoorlifeandpraisesthecountrypeople,especiallythe peasants,becausetheyliveclosetonature.Popeandhisfollow- erscouldseenojoyoutsidethecity.Theysneeredatthe countryswainsandemphasizedtheignoranceandvulgarityso 41.
preYalentinruralcorrarunities.Forthemtruehappinesscould notexistapartfromlearningandculture.Nordidtheyconsider thecountryasmorehealthfulthanthecity.Thestormsand exposureoftheonewereconsideredfr:uchmoreharmifulthanthe shelterandprotectionoftheother.YetArmstrongwouldhave everybodyliveinthecountry-returntonature.Protahlyhis motive»vaslargelyutilitarian,buttherewascertainlymuchof thehumanitarianelementinit.Thebeautiesofnatureappealed tohimastheycouldnothaveappealedtooneoftheoldschool. Hisappreciationofrurallifewasgenuine,andhehadmorethan amere"professional"interestindwellinguponnatureashedid.

Weturnnowfrom,thedidacticpoetswhounconsciously

incorporatedintheirworkssomeoftheelementsofromanticism, tooneofthefewpoetsofthecenturywhoconsciouslyaidedthe romanticmovementandsoughttodiscountpseudo-classicism.,in ordertotakeupanewphaseofthegoldenagewhenitfirst appears,andtraceitthroughthecentury.Thusfar,ithasbeen seen,thereturntonaturehasbeenadvocatedinageneralway. Thepoetshavedrawngeneralcontrastsbetir.eenthecityandthe countryandpicturedthehappinessofrurallifeastheancients paintedthelifeofthegoldenage.Howevertherewasnota personallongingforaquietlifeinthecountry.Thisnewnote isfirstfoundinthepoemsof)l^omasWarton(1728-1790).Warton lovednaturewithasimple,unaffected,whole-heartedlove,and 42.
itseemedeasyforhimtoescape,inimaginativefancy,fromthe citytothenaturalbeautiesofthecountry.Consequentlyhis poemsatooundinhintsofthegoldenageandsuggestionsofthe returntonature.InthePleasuresofMelancholy(1745),(oneof themanytitlesmiodel/ledafterAkenside'sPleasuresof Imiagination),hecontraststheartificialityofcourtlifeA'ith thehappinessofromanticsolitudeand,likehisdidacticprede- cessors,advocatesthelifeinthecountry^orallwhowould"be trulyhappy,butunlikethemx,wishessuchanexistenceforhimself. Whenoldagecomesuponhim.hewouldflyfromtheworldandlive inquietseclusion.Theretreatwhichhedescribeshasallthe characteristicsofthegoldenageoftheancientpoets.There wouldbealowlycottagesituatedinabeautifulvalleyenclosed bydark-branchingtrees;amurmuringriverwouldflowthroughthe valley,andonitsbankswouldgrowallkindsoffruit-bearing trees.Oneneedonlyturntoanyoneoftheancientpoetsfor theoriginaJLofthisromanticretreat.Butthereisadifference inthepointofview.Theancientlookediuponthegoldenageas past,Wartontransferredtheconditionsofthatpastagetohis owntime;theonefoundthecontrasttohiso^mlifeinatime longpastandimpossibleofattainmientsaveinfancy,theother foundreliefforthecaresoflifeinanactualplacewhichhe endowedwithfanciedatt

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