[PDF] EASO Country of Origin Information Report Turkey Country Focus

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CountryFocus



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November2016

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EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ3



Acknowledgments

EASOwouldliketoacknowledgethefollowingnationalasylumandmigrationdepartmentsas thecoͲauthors,togetherwithEASO,ofthisreport: Finland,FinnishMigrationService,LegalServiceandCountryInformationUnit; Lithuania,AsylumAffairsDivision,MigrationDepartment; Romania,GeneralInspectorateforImmigration,CountryofInformationUnit.

Thefollowingdepartments

reviewedthisreport: Germany,FederalOfficeforMigrationandRefugees(BAMF);

Greece,RegionalAsylumOfficeofAttica;

TheNetherlands,ImmigrationandNaturalisationService,OfficeforCountry

InformationandLanguageAnalysis(OCILA).

JeanMarcou,ResearcheronTurkey,ProfessorͲDirectorofInternationalRelationsͲGrenoble InstituteofPoliticalStudies(SciencesPoGrenobleͲFrance)/

DirectoroftheMasterof

MediterraneanandtheMiddleEasternStudies,hasreviewedthereportaswell.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ4



Contents

Acknowledgments..............................................................................................................3

Contents............................................................................................................................4

Disclaimer..........................................................................................................................7

GlossaryandAbbreviations................................................................................................8

Introduction.....................................................................................................................13

Methodology.......................................................................................................................13

MapTurkey()...................................................................................................................15

1.Statestructure..............................................................................................................16

1.1Constitution...................................................................................................................16

1.2Executivebranch...........................................................................................................17

1.2.1ThePresidentoftheRepublic...............................................................................17

1.2.2ThePrime

MinisterandtheCabinet......................................................................17

1.3Legislativebranch..........................................................................................................18

1.3.1Theparliamentarysystem.....................................................................................18

1.3.2Theelectoralsystem..............................................................................................19

1.3.3Thelegislativeprocess:Parliament.......................................................................20

1.4Administration..............................................................................................................22

2.SocioͲpoliticallandscape...............................................................................................24

2.1Politicalparties..............................................................................................................24

2.1.1JusticeandDevelopmentParty,AKP

.....................................................................24

2.1.2RepublicanPeople'sParty,CHP.............................................................................25

2.1.3NationalistMovementParty,MHP........................................................................25

2.1.4People'sDemocraticParty,HDP............................................................................26

2.1.5FelicityParty,SP.....................................................................................................27

2.1.6Otherparties..........................................................................................................27

2.2Elections........................................................................................................................28

2.2.1Localelectionsin2014...........................................................................................28

2.2.2Presidentialelectionsin2014

................................................................................28

2.2.3Parliamentaryelectionsin2015............................................................................29

2.2.4Electioncampaigns................................................................................................29

2.3Opposition.....................................................................................................................30

2.3.1Politicalopposition................................................................................................30

2.3.2Armedgroups........................................................................................................31

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2.4Civilsociety....................................................................................................................32

2.5Media............................................................................................................................33

2.5.1Televisionandnewspapers....................................................................................33

2.5.2Internet..................................................................................................................34

3.Ruleoflawandstateprotection...................................................................................35

3.1Generaloverview..........................................................................................................35

3.2Lawenforcementandsecurityforces...........................................................................37

3.2.1Police......................................................................................................................37

3.2.2Jandarmaandvillageguards

.................................................................................39

3.2.3Intelligenceservices...............................................................................................41

3.2.4Military...................................................................................................................42

3.2.5Accountabilitymechanisms...................................................................................45

3.3Judiciary.........................................................................................................................47

3.3.1Courtsystem..........................................................................................................47

3.3.2Capacityandjudicialintegrity...............................................................................51

3.4TheroleoftheOmbudsmanandtheaccountabilityoftheadministration.................56

3.4.1Structureandmandate..........................................................................................

56

3.4.2Filingacomplaint...................................................................................................56

3.5Corruptionandgoodgovernance.................................................................................57

3.5.1Fightagainstcorruption.........................................................................................57

3.5.2Thegovernment'spolicyongovernanceandtransparency.................................58

4.Thesecuritysituation....................................................................................................59

4.1.Generaloverviewofthesecuritysituation..................................................................59

4.2Actorsintheconflict.....................................................................................................

62

4.2.1TheKurdistanWorkers'Party(PKK)......................................................................62

4.2.2CivilDefenseUnits(YPS)/PatrioticRevolutionaryYouthMovement(YDGͲH).....63

4.2.3KurdistanFreedomFalcons(TAK)/TeyrenbazenAzadiyaKurdistan......................63

4.2.4DemocraticUnionParty(PYD)/People'sProtectionUnits(YPG)..........................65

4.2.5RevolutionaryPeople'sLiberationPartyͲFront,DHKPͲC.......................................

66

4.2.6IslamicStateofIraqandalͲSham,ISIS/IS..............................................................66

4.2.7JabhatalͲNusra(AlͲNusraFront)...........................................................................67

4.3ImpactoftheviolenceinsouthͲeastTurkey.................................................................68

4.3.1Casualties...............................................................................................................68

4.3.2Accesstobasicservices,foodandhealthcare.......................................................69

4.3.3Education...............................................................................................................69

4.3.4Internaldisplacements..........................................................................................69

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5.HumanRightsSituation.................................................................................................71

5.1Legalcontextandinstitutionalframework...................................................................71

5.2Generalsituation...........................................................................................................73

5.2.1Freedomofspeechandexpression.......................................................................74

5.2.2Freedomofassemblyandassociation...................................................................75

5.3Detention......................................................................................................................77

5.4Specificgroups..............................................................................................................79

5.4.1Ethnicandreligious(minority)groups..................................................................

79

5.4.2Journalistsandmedia............................................................................................84

5.4.3Humanrightsandpeacedefenders.......................................................................87

5.4.4Women..................................................................................................................89

5.4.5Children..................................................................................................................92

5.4.6LGBTIpersons........................................................................................................95

5.4.7Traffickedpersons.................................................................................................97

6.Theattemptedmilitarycoup.........................................................................................99

6.1Theeventsof15Ͳ16July2016.......................................................................................99

6.2

Theaftermathoftheattemptedcoup........................................................................100

6.2.1Emergencydecrees..............................................................................................101

6.2.2Thejusticesector.................................................................................................104

6.2.3Themedia............................................................................................................105

6.2.4Theeducationandresearchsector.....................................................................106

6.2.5Popularandpoliticalsupport..............................................................................107

Annex1.Majorsecurityevents(2015Ͳ2016)..................................................................108

Majoreventslinked

toPKK...............................................................................................108

MajoreventslinkedtoISandaffiliates.............................................................................111

Bibliography...................................................................................................................113

TermsofReference........................................................................................................158

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Disclaimer

ThisreportwaswrittenaccordingtotheEASOCOIReportMethodology(2012)( 1 ).Thereport isbasedoncarefullyselectedsourcesofinformation.Allsourcesusedarereferenced.Tothe extentpossibleandunlessotherwisestated,allinformationpresented,exceptforundisputed orobviousfacts,hasbeencrossͲchecked. Theinformationcontainedinthisreporthasbeenresearched,evaluatedandanalysedwith utmost care.However,thisdocumentdoesnotclaimtobeexhaustive.Ifaparticularevent, personororganisationisnotmentionedinthereport,thisdoesnotmeanthattheeventhas nottakenplaceorthatthepersonororganisationdoesnotexist.

Furthermore,thisreportisnotconclusiveas

tothedeterminationormeritofanyparticular claimtorefugeestatusorasylum.Terminologyusedshouldnotberegardedasindicativeof aparticularlegalposition. 'Refugee','risk'andsimilarterminologyareusedasagenericterminologyandnotaslegally definedintheEUAsylumAcquisandtheGeneva

Convention.

NeitherEASOnoranypersonactingonitsbehalfmaybeheldresponsiblefortheusewhich maybemadeoftheinformationcontainedinthisreport. Reproductionisauthorised,providedthesourceisacknowledged. Thetargetusersareasylumcaseworkers,COIresearchers,policymakers,anddecisionͲmaking authorities. The draftingofthisreportwasfinalisedon14September2016.Anyeventtakingplaceafter thisdateisnotincludedinthisreport.AnexceptiontothiscutͲoffdatewasmadeforthe EuropeanCommission's2016CommunicationonEUEnlargementPolicyissued9November

2016,themainfindingsofwhich

wereincorporatedinthisreport. ( 1 )TheEASOmethodologyislargelybasedontheCommonEUGuidelinesforprocessingCountryofOrigin Information(COI),2008,andcanbedownloadedfromtheEASOCOIPortal, (https://coi.easo.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/EASO%20COI%20Report%20Methodology.pdf).

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GlossaryandAbbreviations

AEDHEuropeanAssociationfortheDefenceofHumanRights

AIAmnestyInternational

AKPAdaletveKalkınmaPartisi/JusticeandDevelopmentParty

BBPBüyükBirlikPartisi/GrandUnityParty

BDPBarıƔveDemokrasiPartisi/PeaceandDemocracyParty

CATCommitteeAgainstTorture

CEDAWConventionontheElimination

ofAllFormsofDiscrimination againstWomen

CEPEJEuropeanCommissionfortheEfficiencyofJustice

CHPCumhuriyetHalkPartisi/PeopleRepublicanParty

CIGCountryInformationandGuidance

CKMPCumhuriyetKöylüMilletPartisi/RepublicanVillagersNation Party

CoECouncilofEurope

CoEͲGRECOCouncilofEuropeͲGroupofStatesagainst

Corruption

CPJCommitteetoProtectJournalists

DanıƔtay CouncilofState

DHKPͲCDevrimciHalkKurtuluƔPartisi-Cephesi/Revolutionary

People'sLiberationPartyͲFront

DISKDevrimciƔciSendikalarıKonfederasyonu/Confederationof

RevolutionaryWorkersUnions

DPDemokratParti/DemocraticParty

ECEuropeanCommission

ECFREuropeanCouncilon

ForeignRelations

ECHREuropeanCourtofHumanRights

EDAMEkonomiveDiƔPolitikaAraƔtirmaMerkezi/Centerof researchonEkonomyandForeignPolicy

EESCEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee

DTPDemokratikToplumPartisi/DemocraticSocietyParty

ECFREuropeanCouncilonForeignRelations

EESCEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee

EUEuropeanUnion

ErgenekonAllegedclandestineultranationalistgroupaimedat overthrowingAKP.Allegedlycomposedofmembersofthe militaryandpolice,terroristorparamilitarygroups, nongovernmentalorganisations,organisedcrime, journalists,politicians,judges,andgovernmentofficials.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ9



EuroMed EuroͲMediterraneanHumanRightsNetwork

FETÖFethullahcıTerörÖrgütü/FethullahGülenTerror

Organisation.Turkishauthoritiesandmediarefertothe

GülenMovementwiththetermFETÖsincetheyhave

designatedthismovementasaterroristorganisation,andin particularsincetheattemptedcoupof15July2016. FIDH

InternationalFederationforHumanRights

FIUFinancialInvestigationUnits(MASAK)

FPFaziletPartisi/VirtueParty

GNATorGNAGrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey/inTurkish:TürkBüyük

MilletMeclisi(TBMM)

GRECOGroupofStatesagainstCorruption

HakͲIsHakƔciSendikalarıKonfederasyonu/MoralRightsWorkers Union HBDH HalklarınBirleƔikDevrimHareketi/People'sUnited

RevolutionaryMovement

HDPHaklarınDemokratikPartisi/Peoples'DemocraticParty HizmetTheGülenMovementreferstoitselfasHizmet,'theservice' HRFT/THVTürkiyensanHaklarıVakfı/HumanRightsFoundationof

Turkey

HRICHumanRightsInvestigationCommission

HRWHumanRightsWatch

HSYKHakimlerveSavıcılarYüksekKurulu/HighCouncilofJudges andProsecutors

ICGInternationalCrisisGroup

IDPsInternallyDisplacedPersons

IDMCInternalDisplacementMonitoringCentre

IHD/HRA InsanHaklariDerneOEi/HumanRightsAssociation ILGAInternationalLesbian,Gay,Bisexual,TransandIntersex

Association

ILO

InternationalLabourOrganization

IOMOrganizationforInternationalMigration

IRBImmigrationandRefugeeBoardofCanada

ISIslamicState

ISISIslamicStateofIraqandalͲSham

ISPATInvestmentSupportandPromotionAgencyofTurkey

JITEMJandarmastihbaratveTerörleMücadele/Gendarmerie

IntelligenceandCounterterrorism

KCKKomaCivakênKurdistan/

UnionofCommunitiesofKurdistan

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ10

 KESKKamuEmekçileriSendikalarıKonfederasyonu/Confederation ofPublicSectorUnions

KNKKurdistanNationalCongress

LGBTILesbian,Gay,Bisexual,TransgenderandIntersexpersons MASAKMaliSuçlariAraƔtirmakurulu/FinancialCrimesInvestigation

BoardIntelligenceandCounterterrorism

MHPMilliyetçiHareketPartisi/NationalistMovementParty

MTMillistihbaratTeƔkilat

ı/NationalIntelligenceOrganisation

MÜSIADMüstakilSanayiciveƔAdamlarıDerneOEi/Independent

Industrialists'andBusinessmen'sAssociation

MKYKMerkezKararYönetimKurulu/CentralDecisionand

ExecutiveBoard

NAPNationalActionPlan

NHRINationalHumanRightsInstitution(alsoTIHK)

NATONorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization

NGOsNonͲGovernmentalOrganisations

OHCHR

OfficeoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHuman

Rights

OIOmbudsmanInstitution

OKKÖzelKuvvetlerKomutanlıOEı/SpecialForcesCommand OSCEOrganizationforSecurityandCoͲoperationinEurope 'ParallelStructure'RecepTayyipErdoOEanreferredtotheGülenMovementas 'theparallelstructure',pointingtotheopacity ofthe organisation,accusedofpreparingaconspiracy. PKKPartiyaKarkerênKurdistanê/KurdistanWorkers'Party PostmoderncoupReferencetothe'recommendations'issuedbythemilitaryin February1997,whichinitiatedaprocesstoforcetheIslamist

PrimeMinister,NecmettinErbakan,toresign.

PYDPartiyaYekîtiyaDemokrat/DemocraticUnionParty

RPRefahPartisi/WelfareParty

RoPRulesofProcedures

RSFReporterswithoutBorders

RTÜKRadyoveTelevizyonÜstKurulu/RadioandTelevision

SupremeCouncil

SCOsCivilSocietyOrganisations

SDFSyrianDemocraticForces

SÖNIMViolencePreventionandMonitoringCentres

SPSaadetPartisi/FelicityParty

TAKTeyrênbazêAzadiyaKurdistan/

KurdistanFreedomFalcons

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ11

 TBBTürkiyeBarolarBirliOEi/UnionoftheTurkishBarAssociations TBMMTürkBüyükMilletMeclisi/GrandNationalAssemblyof

Turkey(GNA/GNAT)

TESEVTürkiyeEkonomikveSosyalEtüdlerVakfı/TurkishEconomic andSocialStudiesFoundation

TESKTurkishConfederationofTradesmenandCraftsmen

THKP/CͲAcilciler TurkishPeople'sLiberation

PartyͲFront

TBTelekomünikasyonletiƔimBaƔkanlıOEı/Telecommunications

Directorate

TISKTurkishConfederationofEmployers'Unions

TLFCTurkishLandForcesCommand

TMMOBTürkMühendisveMimarOdalarBirliOEi/Unionofthe

ChambersofTurkishEngineersandArchitects

TNPTurkishNationalPolice/TürkPolisTe

Ɣkilatı

TOBBTürkiyeOdalarveBorsalarBirliOEi/TurkishUnionofChambers ofCommerceandCommodityExchanges TRTTürkiyeRadyoveTelevizyonKurumu/TurkishRadioand

TelevisionCorporation

TSKTürkSilahlıKuvvetleri/TurkishArmedForces

TTBTürkTabipleriBirliOEi/TurkishMedicalAssociation

TÜBITAKTürkiye

BilimselveTeknolojikAraƔtırmaKurumu/Scientific andTechnologicalResearchCouncilofTurkey TÜRKͲTürkiyesçiSendikalarıKonfederasyonu/Turkish

ConfederationofLabour

TÜSEVTürkiyeÜçüncüSektörVakfi/ThirdSectorFoundationof

Turkey

TÜSIADTürkSanayiciveƔAdamlarıDerneOEi/TurkishIndustrialists' andBusinessmen'sAssociation

TUSKON

TürkiyeƔAdamlarıveSanayicilerKonfederasyonu/ ConfederationofBusinessmenandIndustrialistsofTurkey

UNFPAUnitedNationsPopulationFund

UNICEFUnitedNationsChildren'sEmergencyFund

UPRUniversalPeriodicReview

USCIRFUSCommissiononInternationalReligiousFreedom

USDUSDollar

USDoSUnitedStatesDepartmentofState

UYAPNationalJudiciaryInformaticsSystem

VPPatrioticParty

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ12

 YargıtayCourtofCassation(orSupremeCourtofAppealsorHigh

CourtofAppeals)

YÖKYüksekÖOEretimKurulu/TurkishHigherEducationBoard YDGͲHYurtseverDevrimciGençlikHareket/PatrioticRevolutionary

YouthMovement

YPGYekîneyênParastinaGel/People'sProtectionUnits

YSKYüksekSeçimKurulu-Supreme

ElectoralCouncil

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ13



Introduction

ThisCountryFocusreportonTurkeywrittenattherequestofboththeEuropeanParliament andtheEuropeanCouncilforgeneralbackgroundinformationandmoredetailedinformation relevantforinternationalprotectionstatusdeterminationandfortheassessmentofthe applicabilityofthesafecountryoforiginconcepttoTurkey.Forthe designationofsafe countriesoforigin,AnnexIoftheAsylumProceduresDirectiveforeseesthat: 'Acountryisconsideredasasafecountryoforiginwhere,onthebasisofthelegal situation,theapplicationofthelawwithinademocraticsystemandthegeneral politicalcircumstances,itcanbe shownthatthereisgenerallyandconsistentlyno persecutionasdefinedinArticle9ofDirective2011/95/EU,notortureorinhumanor degradingtreatmentorpunishmentandnothreatbyreasonofindiscriminate violenceinsituationsofinternationalorinternalarmedconflict' ( 2 ). Inaddition,'accountshallbetaken,interalia,oftheextenttowhichprotectionisprovided againstpersecutionormistreatment'( 3 ).TheTurkeyCountryFocusathandcoversthemost importantinformationneedsrelatedtotheaboveͲmentionedcriteriaforsafecountryof origindesignation,namelystatestructure,socioͲpoliticallandscape,ruleoflawandstate protection,securitysituationandhumanrightssituation.TheTermsofReferencecanbe foundattheendofthereport. Thereportaimsatprovidinganobjectiveandneutralinformationbase(withoutassessment orpolicyrecommendations)thatwillallowformoreinformedpolicydiscussions.Itshouldbe notedthatthesituationofthirdcountrynationalsinTurkey(includingpersontransiting throughTurkeyorseeking internationalprotectioninTurkey)doesnotfallwithinthescope ofthisreport.

Methodology

DefiningtheTermsofReference TheTermsofReferencehavebeendefinedon8April2016takingintoaccountfeedbackfrom theEASOCountryofOriginInformation(COI)StrategicNetwork. Draftingprocess TheinitialcollectinginformationanddraftingofthisreportwasdonebetweenAprilͲJuly2016 byCOIspecialistsfromtheCOIunitsandasylumoffices,andbyEASOstaff.Duringthisprocess,

Turkeybecamethesceneofanattempted

coupon15July2016.Theseevents,andtheinitial responsesbytheTurkishgovernmentweresubsequentlyalsoincludedinthereport. Thereferenceperiodhasforthisreasonbeenextendeduntil15September2016.An exceptiontothiscutͲoffdatewasmadefortheEuropeanCommission'sCommunicationon

EUEnlargementPolicy(

4 )issued9November2016,themainfindingsofwhichwere incorporatedinthisreport. ( 2 )CouncilofEurope,Directive2013/32/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof26June2013on commonproceduresforgrantingandwithdrawinginternationalprotection(recast),29June2013. ( 3 )CouncilofEurope,Directive2013/32/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof26June2013on commonproceduresforgrantingandwithdrawinginternationalprotection(recast),29June2013. ( 4 )EC,CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicand SocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions,2016CommunicationonEUEnlargementPolicy,COM(2016)

715final,9November2016.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ14

 Qualitycontrol InordertoensurethattheauthorsrespectedtheEASOCOIReportMethodology,tworounds ofreviewshavebeencarriedoutbyCOIspecialistsfromthecountrieslistedasreviewersin theAcknowledgmentssection.Inaddition,anexternalreviewer,ProfessorDrJeanMarcou hasalsoreviewedandcommentedthereporttwice.Allcommentsmadebythereviewers weretakenintoconsiderationandmostofthemwereimplementedinthefinaldraftofthis report.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ15



MapTurkey(

5 ) ( 5 )PerryͲCastañedaLibraryMapCollection,TurkeyMaps,Turkey(Political),2006.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ16



1.Statestructure

Withapopulationof79414269(

6 ),TurkeyissituatedintheAnatolianpeninsulaandlocated inwesternAsiaandsouthͲeasternEurope(EasternThrace).Itcoversanareaofapproximately

780580sq.kmandisborderedbyeightcountries:BulgariatothenorthͲwest(240km);

Greecetothewest(206km);Georgiatothe

northͲeast(252km);Armenia(268km), Azerbaijan(9km)andIrantotheeast(499km);andIraq(352km)andSyriatothesouthͲeast (822km);makingatotalof2648kilometres.TurkeyborderstheBlackSea(tothenorth),the

Mediterranean(tothesouth),the

Aegean(inthewest)andtheMarmaraSea(TurkishStraits

inthenorthͲwestseparatingEuropeandAsia)andhasatotalseacoastlineof8333 kilometres( 7 ). Thecountryisdividedintosevengeographicalregions,thatdonotrefertoanadministrative division: Aegeanregion; BlackSearegion; Marmararegion; Mediterraneanregion; CentralAnatoliaregion; EasternAnatoliaregion; SouthͲeasternAnatoliaregion.

Withregardtothelevelofdevelopment,the

Marmararegion,thesmallestandthemost

denselypopulatedregion,representsamajordestinationforinternalmigration.Atthe oppositepole,southͲeasternAnatolia(aregionwithdryandmostlyinfertilelands)and easternAnatolia(mountainouswithshortsummersandtoughwinters)consistmainlyof

Kurdishpopulationsthathavebeen

facingdecadesofarmedclashesbetweentheTurkish StateandtheKurdistanWorkers'Party(PKK).DuetothearmedconflictbetweenthePKKand theTurkisharmysincethemiddleofthe1980s,thisregionhasalsobeenageneratorof internalmigrantsandInternallyDisplacedPersons(IDPs)( 8 ).

1.1Constitution

Turkey'sconstitutionisinspiredbytheFrenchmodeloflaïcité:strictsecularism,which requirestheabsenceofreligioninpubliclifeandingovernment.ButdifferentlytotheFrench model,allreligiouscommunities,includingtheSunniMuslimmajority(throughthepowerful PresidencyofReligiousAffairs-DiyanetsleriBaƔkanlı

OEı)aresubjecttostatecontrol

mechanismsthatorganisetheirrightstoownandmaintainplacesofworship,trainclergy, andofferreligiouseducation( 9 ).Article4ofthe1982Constitutiondefineslaïcitéasoneofthe irrevocableprinciplesthatcannotbechallengedevenbyaconstitutionalreview( 10 ).Under ( 6 )PopulationnumberestimatedinJuly2015.CIA,TheWorldFactBook-Turkey,lastupdated5May2016.Thisis excludinganestimated2.7millionSyrianrefugees.UNHCR,SyriaRegionalRefugeeResponse,lastupdated30June 2016.
( 7 )EUMAGINEProjectPaper5,TurkeyCountryandResearchAreasReport,28September2010,p.5. ( 8 )EUMAGINEProjectPaper5,TurkeyCountryandResearchAreasReport,28September2010,pp.7,8. ( 9 )Cornell,Svante,TheRiseofDiyanet:thePoliticizationofTurkey'sDirectorateofReligiousAffairs,9October 2015.
( 10 )RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,18October1982.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ17

 thecurrentconstitution,thePrimeMinisteristheheadofgovernmentandholdsmost executiveauthority,whilethePresidentistheheadofstateandhispowersincludelegislative vetoandtheauthoritytoappointhighͲrankcivilservantslikediplomaticrepresentatives,the militaryheadofstaffandjudgesor prosecutorsofthetopcourts( 11 ).

1.2Executivebranch

Accordingtotheconstitution,theexerciseoftheexecutivepowerisvestedinandisusedby thePresidentandtheCouncilofMinisters( 12 ).

1.2.1ThePresidentoftheRepublic

ThePresidentoftheRepublicistheheadofstateandrepresentstheRepublicofTurkeyand theunityoftheTurkishnation( 13 ).ThePresidentoverseestheworkingsoftheconstitution andguaranteesthattheorgansofthestatefunctionorderlyandharmoniously( 14 ). AccordingtoArticle101oftheTurkishconstitution,thePresidentiselectedbypopularvote fromtheTurkishGrandNationalAssembly(GNATorGNA),'whoareover40yearsofageand havecompletedhighereducation,oramongTurkishcitizenswhofulfiltheserequirements andareeligibletobedeputies' ( 15 ). ThePresidentshallbeelectedforamaximumoftwotermsoffiveyearseach.ThePresident's dutiesandpowersrelatetothelegislative,executiveandjudicialbranches;thePresidentis also'responsibleforensuringtheimplementationoftheConstitution,andtheregularand harmoniousfunctioningoftheorgansof state'( 16 ). FormerlythePresidentwaselectedbytheparliamentbutaftertheconstitutionalamendment of2007(adoptedbyareferendum),whichsetupapopularelection,Turkeyhelddirect presidentialelectionsforthefirsttimeinAugust2014( 17 ).PrimeMinisterRecepTayyip ErdoOEanprevailedwith51.8percentofthevote,winningaonceͲrenewablefiveͲyear term( 18 ).Sincethisfirstdirectpresidentialelection,despiteaparliamentaryconstitution, TurkishpoliticalregimehasbecomedefactoasemiͲpresidentialsysteminwhichthe PresidenttakesthekeydecisionsandthePrimeMinisterputsthemintoeffect,accordingto variousanalysts( 19 ).

1.2.2ThePrimeMinisterandtheCabinet

TheCouncilofMinisters(Cabinet)consistsofthePrimeMinister,designatedbythePresident oftheRepublicfrommembersoftheTurkishGrandNationalAssembly(GNAT),andvarious ministersnominatedbythePrimeMinisterandappointedbythePresidentoftheRepublic.

Ministerscanbeassignedeitherfromamongthedeputies

orfromamongthosewhoarenot membersoftheGNATqualifiedtobeelectedasadeputy.Ministerscanbedismissedfrom ( 11 )RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,18October1982;FreedomHouse,Freedom intheWorld2016ͲTurkey,27January2016. ( 12 )RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,18October1982. ( 13 )ISPAT,LegalandPoliticalStructure,n.d. ( 14 )ConsulateGeneralRepublicofTurkeyMichigan,AboutTurkey,State+Policy,Executivebranch,n.d. ( 15 )RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,18October1982. ( 16 )RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,18October1982. ( 17 )PresidencyoftheRepublicofTurkey,DutiesandPowers,B.Election(AmendedArticle102),n.d. ( 18 )FreedomHouse,FreedomintheWorld2016,Turkey,27January2016. ( 19 )HürriyetDailyNews,Turkeyruledbydefactopresidentialsystem:Turkey'sPM,11July2016;HürriyetDaily News,MuratYETKIN,DefactosysteminTurkeychangeinTurkeyasPMleavespost,6May2016;HürriyetDaily News,TuranYILMAZ,FrenchsemiͲpresidentialsystembackonrulingAKP'sagenda,22

February2016.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ18

 theirdutiesbythePresidentuponthePrimeMinister'sproposalorindividuallybythe parliament,whendeemednecessary.ThefundamentaldutyoftheCouncilofMinistersisto formulateandimplementtheinternalandforeignpoliciesofthestate.TheCouncilof

Ministersisaccountabletotheparliamentinthe

executionofthisduty( 20 ). Underthecurrentconstitution,thePrimeMinisteristheheadofgovernmentandholdsthe mostexecutiveauthority,whilethePresidentistheheadofstate( 21
).AfterErdoOEanhadwon thepresidentialelectionsinAugust2014,ForeignMinisterAhmetDavutoOEluassumedthe former'spostsofPrimeMinisterandheadoftheAKP( 22
). Aftertherulingparty(AKP)lostitsabsolutemajorityintheparliamentaryelectionsof

7June2015,acoalitiongovernmentcouldnotbeformedandaninterimgovernmenttook

officeintherunͲuptotherepeatelectionon1November2015.

ThegovernmenthasbeenheadedbyPrimeMinisterAhmet

DavutoOElufrom28August2014

untilheresignedon5May2016( 23
),havingfiveDeputyPrimeMinisters(until

1November2015):YalçınAkdoOEan(since29August2014),YıldırımTuOErulTürkeƔ(since

29August2014),LutfiElvan(since24November2015),NumanKurtulmuƔ(since

29August2014),MehmetimƔek(since24November2015)(

24
).AftertheAKPregainedan absolutemajorityintheelectionsof1November,RecepTayyipErdoOEanchargedAhmet DavutoOElutoformanewgovernmentdifferentfromtheinterimone( 25
). On19May2016,currentTransportationMinisterBinaliYıldırımwaselectedasAKPleader andthreedayslaterappointedasPrimeMinister( 26
).

1.3Legislativebranch

1.3.1Theparliamentarysystem

Turkeyisaconstitutionalrepublicwithamultipartyparliamentarysystemandapresident.A unicameralparliament,theGrandNationalAssembly(GNA/GNATͲBüyükMilletMeclisi), exerciseslegislativeauthorityonbehalfoftheTurkishnationandthisrightisinalienable( 27
). TheGNA/GNATiscomposedof550membersdirectlyelectedinmultiͲseatconstituenciesby proportionalrepresentationvotefrom81provincesand85electoraldistrictsintotal. Deputiesrepresenttheentirenationandbeforeassumingoffice,takeanoath( 28
). Parliamentaryelectionsareheldeveryfouryears.Currently,inadditiontothisprovincial systemofproportionalrepresentation,anationalthresholdof10%isinplace( 29
). ( 20 )ISPAT,LegalandPoliticalStructure,n.d. ( 21
)RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,18October1982. ( 22
)FreedomHouse,FreedomintheWorld2016ͲTurkey,27January2016 ( 23
)BBC,TurkeyPMAhmetDavutoglutoquitamidreportsofErdoOEanrift,5May2016. ( 24
)CIAWorldFactbook,Turkey,Government,lastupdate05May2016. ( 25
)Reuters,Turkey'sErdoOEanasksPMDavutoglutoformnewgovernment,17November2015. ( 26
)AA,Turkey:AKParty'snewchairmantoformgovernment,22May2016;NewYorkTimes(The),ErdoOEan LoyalistIsNominatedtoBeTurkey'sPrimeMinister,19May2016. ( 27
)USDoS,CountryReportonHumanRightsPractices2015ͲTurkey,13April2016;CIA,TheWorldFactbook, Turkey;GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),DutiesandPowers,n.d.;CoEͲGRECO,FourthEvaluationRound,

EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016.

( 28
)RepublicofTurkey(The),ISPAT,LegalandPoliticalStructure,n.d.;CIA,TheWorldFactbook,Turkey,last updated5May2016;GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),DutiesandPowers;CoEͲGRECO:FourthEvaluation

Round,EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016.

( 29
)WorldElections,Turkey2011,13June2011.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ19

 Consequently,politicalpartiesthatcannotobtainmorethan10%ofvalidvotesthroughout thecountrywillnotwinanyseatintheAssembly,limitingpoliticalpluralism( 30
). Thelegislativeterm(theperiodbetweentwoparliamentaryelections)isfouryears,butthis canchangewhenanearlyelectionisheld,orwhentheparliamentaryelectionsarepostponed duetowar( 31
). TheconstitutionallowseveryTurkovertheageof25tobecomeamemberofparliament, withsomeexceptions( 32
).TheFourthEvaluationRoundReportonTurkey(March2016), draftedbytheCouncilofEuropeͲGroupofStatesagainstCorruption(GRECO),notedthat: 'Membersofparliamentbenefitfromimmunity(inviolability);i)deputiescannotbe heldliablefortheirvotesandstatementsduringparliamentaryproceedings,andii) deputiesaccusedofhaving committedanoffencebeforeorafterelectioncannotbe arrested,detained,interrogatedortried-exceptincasesofinflagrantedelictor equiringaheavypenaltyandincasessubjecttoArticle14oftheConstitutionaslong asaninvestigationhasbeeninitiatedbeforetheelection-unless permissionisgiven byParliament.TheexecutionofacriminalsentenceimposedonanMPistobe suspendeduntils/heceasestobeamember'( 33
). However,aconstitutionalamendment,approvedbytheparliamenton20May2016,allowed theliftingoftheimmunityofmembersofparliamentforallegedtieswithterrorists( 34
).Itits CommunicationonEUEnlargementPolicy2016(hereafterreferredtoas'ECCommunication

2016')theEuropeanCommissionexpresseditsdeepconcernaboutthismeasure(

35
).

1.3.2Theelectoralsystem

Local,parliamentaryandpresidentialelectionsareregularlyheldinTurkey(see2.2Elections). Turkishcitizenshavetherighttochangetheirgovernmentinfairandfreeelections.Thereis universalandequalsuffrageinTurkey( 36
).AccordingtotheBrookingsInstitute,'Turkeyis increasinglycalledan"illiberaldemocracy"'.Thoughitholdsrelativelyfairandfreeelections, italsoshowssignsofauthoritarianism,stillaccordingtoBrookingsInstitute.Externaland internalfactors(e.g.armedconflictinsouthͲeastTurkey,terrorattacksandcorruption charges),andthegovernment's reactionstothese,haveledmanytobelievethereisa diminishingofdemocracyandcivilrights( 37
)(see5.HumanRightsSituation).



( 30
)GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey,ParliamentaryElections,n.d;CoEͲGRECO,FourthEvaluationRound, EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016;OSCE/ODIHR,Turkey,EarlyParliamentaryElections,1November2015:

FinalReport,28January2016.

( 31
)GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),BasicConcepts,n.d. ( 32
)Exceptionsareasfollows:personswhohavenotcompletedprimaryeducation;personswhohavebeen deprivedoflegalcapacity;personswhohavenotperformedcompulsorymilitaryservice,personswhoarebanned frompublicservice,personswhohavebeensentencedtoaprisontermtotalingoneyearormoreexcluding involuntary offences,ortoaheavyimprisonment;personswhohavebeenconvictedfordishonorableoffences suchasembezzlement,corruption,bribery,theft,fraud,forgery,breachoftrust,fraudulentbankruptcy;and personsconvictedofsmuggling,conspiracyinofficialbiddingorpurchasing,ofoffencesrelatedtothedisclosure ofstatesecrets,ofinvolvementin actsofterrorism,orincitementandencouragementofsuchactivities.These personsshallnotbeelectedasadeputy,eveniftheyhavebeengrantedamnesty,in:CoEͲGRECO,Fourth EvaluationRound,EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016. ( 33
)CoEͲGRECO:FourthEvaluationRound,EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016,p.23. ( 34
)LoC,Turkey:ConstitutionalAmendmentAdoptedtoAllowCertainLegislatorstoBeStrippedofImmunity,25

May2016.

( 35
)EC,CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomic andSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions,2016CommunicationonEUEnlargementPolicy,

COM(2016)715final,9November2016,p.4.

( 36
)USDoS,Turkey2015HumanRightsReport,18April2016,p.47. ( 37
)KiriƔci,K.,Turkeyandtheinternationalliberalorder:Whathappened?,23February2016.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ20

 Partiesareallowedtopresentcandidateswhocanstandfreelyinelections.Thechief prosecutionoftheCourtofAppealscanprohibitacandidatefromrunningdueto unconstitutionalactivities( 38
).ElectionsinTurkeyaresupervisedbytheSupremeElectoral

Council(YüksekSeçimKuruluͲYSK)(

39
). A10%thresholdmustbereachedforapartytoobtainseatsinparliament.Thisthresholdhas resultedintheinabilityofsmallerparties,suchasproͲKurdishpartiesorfarͲleftparties,to entertheparliament.Smallerpartieshavetheircandidateselectedbylistingthemas independentcandidates ( 40
).ThispermittedformerKurdishparties(DemocraticSocietyParty orDTPandthenPeaceandDemocracyPartyorBDP)toovercomethethresholdobstacle. Theyindeedappointedindependentcandidatesforthe2007and2011parliamentary electionsandthenformedaparliamentarygroupwiththeKurdishelectedindependent deputies( 41
).ButinbothJuneandNovember2015parliamentaryelections,thenewKurdish party(HaklarınDemokratikPartisi/Peoples'DemocraticPartyorHDP)decidedtofieldparty listsratherthanindependentcandidates.Inbothparliamentaryelectionsin2015,onlyfour partiespassedthethresholdamongwhichtheHDP.This partyhascurrentlythethirdgroup (59seats)intheGNAT.Theotherrepresentedpartiesaretherulingparty(AKP-317seats), theKemalists(PeopleRepublicanPartyorCHP-134seats)andtheNationalists(Nationalist MovementParty/MilliyetçiHareketPartisiorMHP-40seats)( 42
). TheEuropeanCommission(EC)initsCommunicationonEUEnlargementStrategy2015 (furtherreferredtoasECCommunication2015),criticisedthelackoflegalframework regulatingelections,ofwhich'the10%thresholdofvotesforpartiestoberepresentedin parliamentneedtobeaddressedasapriority'( 43
).TheEC'sCommunicationonEU EnlargementPolicy2016(ECCommunication2016)doesnotmentionanynewsonthisissue ( 44
).

1.3.3Thelegislativeprocess:Parliament

ThelegislativeprocessinTurkeyisregulatedbytheconstitution,intheRulesofProcedure (RoP)oftheGNAT.Onlymembersofparliamentandthegovernment(CouncilofMinisters) areentitledtointroducebills.FollowingTurkey'sparliamentarysystem,thegovernmentmust havethesupportoftheAssemblyandisaccountableto theAssembly.Thegovernment resumesofficebyobtainingavoteofconfidencefromtheAssembly( 45
). AccordingtotheRepublicofTurkeyPrimeMinisterInvestmentSupportandPromotion Agency(ISPAT),theGNAThasthefollowingfunctionsandpowers: '(...)theadoptionofdraftlaws,andtheamendmentandrepealofexistinglaws;the supervisionoftheCouncilofMinisters(Cabinet)andtheMinisters;authorizationof the CouncilofMinisterstoissuegovernmentaldecreeshavingtheforceoflawon ( 38
)USDoS,Turkey2015HumanRightsReport,18April2016,p.49. ( 39
)YSK,ElectionsPowersandDuties,n.d. ( 40
)Seufert,G.,ParliamentaryCrisisFollowsTurkisElections,August2011,p.2. ( 41
)Reuters,Turkishelectionsstirsoptimism,changeforKurds,15July2007;HürriyetDailyNews,KurdishDTPin revamp,8November2007. ( 42
)Milliyet,1KasimGenelSeçim,n.d. ( 43
)EC,CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomic andSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions,EUEnlargementstrategy,COM(2015)611final,10

November2015,p.28.

( 44
)EC,CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomic andSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions,2016CommunicationonEUEnlargementPolicy,

COM(2016)715final,9November2016.

( 45
)GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),Basicconcepts,n.d.;CoEͲGRECO,FourthEvaluationRound,

EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016,p.11.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ21

 certainmatters;debatingandapprovalofthebudgetdraftandthedraftlawoffinal accounts,makingdecisionsontheprintingofcurrency,thedeclarationofwar,martial laworemergencyrule;ratifyinginternationalagreements;makingdecisionswith3/5 oftheGNAonproclamationofamnestiesandpardonsinline withthe

Constitution'(

46
). TheAssemblyhasthepowertoscrutinisetheactivitiesofthegovernment( 47
).Accordingto thewebsiteoftheGrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey,'thePlenaryoftheGNAisthefinal decisionͲmakingorganwhichcarriesoutthelegislative,scrutinyandotherfunctions. Governmentbillsandprivatemembers'billsdebatedinthecommitteesareenactedupon approvalofthePlenary'( 48
). DraftbillsshouldbeacceptedbytheAssemblybeforetheybecomelaws;andafterpublication intheOfficialGazette,theyarebindingandtobeenforced.Lawsshouldbeforwardedto,and approvedby,thePresident,afterwhichtheyhavetobepublishedwithin15days.Ifthe

Presidentdoes

not(fully)approvethebill,itwillreturntotheAssemblyforasecondroundof debatesand,ifneededordesirable,amendments( 49
). AccordingtothewebsiteoftheGrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey,apoliticalpartyshould havetwentydeputiesinordertoestablishagroupandtheconstitutiondeterminesthatthe politicalpartiesshouldparticipateinallactivitiesoftheAssembly,accordingtothepercentage oftheirrepresentation.Apoliticalparty groupenjoysseveraladvantagesintheirlegislative andscrutinyactivities( 50
). Representedpartiesandtheirleadersinparliamentare(asof20June2016): JusticeandDevelopmentPartyorAKP[BinaliYILDIRIM] RepublicanPeople'sPartyorCHP[KemalKILIÇDAROLU] NationalistMovementPartyorMHP[DevletBAHÇEL] People'sDemocraticPartyorHDP[SelahattinDEMRTAand

FigenYÜKSEKDA]

( 51
). Otherspartiesreceivedlessthan1%ofthevotesinthelastparliamentaryelections,suchas: DemocraticPartyorDP[GültekinUYSAL] FelicityPartyorSP[MustafaKAMALAK] GrandUnityPartyorBBP[MustafaDESTC] PatrioticPartyorVP[DoOEuPERNÇEK] ( 52
). Therearealsoanumberofpoliticalpressuregroups(mainlytradeunionsorassociationsof employers)andleaderssuchas: ConfederationofBusinessmenandIndustrialistsofTurkeyorTUSKON[RizanurMERAL] (thisGülenͲlinkedassociationofemployershasbeendisbandedsincetheattempted ( 46
)ISPAT,LegalandPoliticalStructure,n.d. ( 47
)GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),FunctionsoftheGovernment,n.d. ( 48
)CoEͲGRECO,FourthEvaluationRound,EvaluationReportTurkey,17March2016;GrandNationalAssemblyof

Turkey(The),ThePlenary,n.d..

( 49
)GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),PublicationofLaws,n.d. ( 50
)GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),PoliticalPartyGroups,n.d. ( 51
)Milliyet,1KasimGenelSecim,n.d.;GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),PoliticalPartyGroups,n.d. ( 52
)Milliyet,1KasimGenelSecim,n.d.;GrandNationalAssemblyofTurkey(The),PoliticalPartyGroups,n.d.;Vatan

Partisi(PatrioticParty),Chairman,n.d.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ22

 coupof15July2016( 53
)andanarrestwarrantwasissuedagainstitsleader,whois believedtobeabroad)( 54
) ConfederationofPublicSectorUnionsorKESK[LamiOZGEN,SazyieKOSE,coͲchairs] ConfederationofRevolutionaryWorkersUnionsorDISK[KaniBEKO] IndependentIndustrialists'andBusinessmen'sAssociationorMÜSIAD[NailOLPAK] MoralRightsWorkersUnionorHakͲIs[MahmutARSLAN] TurkishConfederationofEmployers'Unions orTSK[TuOErulKUDATGOBLK] TurkishConfederationofLabororTurkͲIs[ErgunATALAY] TurkishConfederationofTradesmenandCraftsmenorTESK[BendeviPALANDOKEN] TurkishIndustrialists'andBusinessmen'sAssociationorTÜSIAD[CansenBAARANͲ

SYMES]

TurkishUnionofChambersofCommerceandCommodity

ExchangesorTOBB[M.Rifat

HSARCIKLIOLU](

55
).

Seealso2.1Politicalparties.

1.4Administration

Turkey'sconstitutiongovernsthelegalframeworkofthecountry,setsoutthemainprinciples ofgovernmentandestablishesTurkeyasaunitarycentralisedstate( 56
).Thefundamentalsof theTurkishadministrationareenshrinedinTurkey'sconstitution,accordingtowhichthe countryisdividedintoprovincesandfurtherdividedintolowerlevelsofadministrative districts.Theadministrationoftheprovincesisbasedontheprincipleofdevolutionofpowers, meaningthatthecentraladministrationfromAnkara hasthepowerofadministrativetutelage overthelocaladministrationsintheframeworkofprinciplesandproceduressetforthby law( 57
).Thelocaladministrationsofthe81provinces(alsocallediller/ili)( 58
)arepublic entitiesestablishedtomeetthecommonlocalneedsoftheinhabitantsofprovinces, municipaldistrictsandvillages,whosedecisionͲmakingorgansareelected.Provinceselect councilswhilemunicipalitiesandvillageselectcouncilsandmayors( 59
). Despiteacentralisedsystem,theimportanceoflocalpowerincreasedinTurkeyduringthe lastdecades.In1984,metropolitanmunicipalitieswereestablishedtoboostthemanagement ofgreaturbancentres(upto750000inhabitants).InJuly2016,therewere30metropolitan ( 53
)HurriyetDailyNews,Bosses,baklavakingsdetainedinantiͲGülenprobe,18August2016. ( 54
)DailySabah,Arrestwarrantsissuedfor114businessmenforfinancingGülenistterrorcult,8September2016 ( 55
)CIA,TheWorldFactbook,Turkey,lastupdated20June2016. ( 56
)EUMAGINEProjectPaper5,TurkeyCountryandResearchAreasReport,28September2010. ( 57
)RepublicofTurkey(The),ConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey,article126,18October1982. ( 58
)81ProvincesAdana,Adiyaman,Afyonkarahisar,Agri,Aksaray,Amasya,Ankara,Antalya,Ardahan,Artvin,

Aydin,Balikesir,Bartin,Batman,Bayburt,Bilecik,Bingol,Bitlis,Bolu,Burdur,Bursa,Canakkale,Cankiri,Corum,

Denizli,Diyarbakir,Duzce,Edirne,Elazig,Erzincan,Erzurum,Eskisehir,Gaziantep,Giresun,Gumushane,Hakkari,

Hatay,Igdir,Isparta,Istanbul,Izmir(Smyrna),Kahramanmaras,Karabuk,Karaman,Kars,Kastamonu,Kayseri,

Kilis,

Kirikkale,Kirklareli,Kirsehir,Kocaeli,Konya,Kutahya,Malatya,Manisa,Mardin,Mersin,Mugla,Mus,Nevsehir, Nigde,Ordu,Osmaniye,Rize,Sakarya,Samsun,Sanliurfa,Siirt,Sinop,Sirnak,Sivas,Tekirdag,Tokat,Trabzon (Trebizond),Tunceli,Usak,Van,Yalova,Yozgat,Zonguldakin:CIA,TheWorldFactbook,Turkey,lastupdated5May 2016.
( 59

)Pérouse,JeanͲFrançois,Lacréationde13nouvellesmunicipalitésmétropolitainesenTurquieparla

modificationdelaloiN°5779ouletriompheécrasantdel'urbaindansl'ordredegestionterritorial,DIPNOT,19

November2012;TurkishGreatNationalAssembly,Bill6360(amendingBill5779onTurkishMetropolitan

Municipalities),12November2012.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ23

 municipalitiesinTurkey:thecapitalandgreatwesterncities(Ankara,Bursa,stanbul,zmir, etc.),butalsoMediterraneancities(Antalya,Adana,Mersin,etc.),AnatolyanCities(Erzurum, Kayseri,Konya,etc.)andsouthͲeasternorKurdishcities(Diyarbakır,Mardin,anlıurfa,Van, etc.).Metropolitanmunicipalitieselectmetropolitancouncilsandmayorsaswell asdistrict councilsandmayors.Theybecameimportantadministrative,financialbutalsopolitical stakes( 60
). Turkey'spublicserviceisregulatedbytheLawonCivilServantswhichestablishesseveral categoriesofcivilservantscoveredbyspecificlegalacts( 61
). TheEChadnotedinitsCommunication2015:'Turkeyismoderatelypreparedintheareaof publicadministrationreformwithastrongcommitmenttoanopen,responsive administration.(...)Recentdismissalsanddemotionsinthecontextofthefightagainstthe 'parallelstructure'wereasourceofconcern'( 62
). TheECCommunication2016added:'However,therehasbeenbackslidingintheareaofpublic serviceandhumanresourcesmanagementinparticularintheaftermathofthecoupattempt. Thestructuralimpactonthefunctioningofthecivilserviceofthemeasurestakenafterthe coupattemptremainstobe assessed'( 63
).Seealso6.1Theaftermathoftheattemptedcoup.   ( 60

)Pérouse,JeanͲFrançois,Lacréationde13nouvellesmunicipalitésmétropolitainesenTurquieparla

modificationdelaloiN°5779ouletriompheécrasantdel'urbaindansl'ordredegestionterritorial,DIPNOT,19

November2012;TurkishGreatNationalAssembly,Bill6360(amendingBill5779onTurkishMetropolitan

Municipalities),12November2012.

( 61
)ILO,NATLEX,TurkeyCivilServants'ActNo.657,14July1965. ( 62
)EC,CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomic andSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions,EUEnlargementstrategy,COM(2015)611final,10

November2015,p.29.

63
)EC,CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicand SocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions,2016CommunicationonEUEnlargementPolicy,COM(2016)

715final,9November2016,p.16.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ24



2.SocioͲpoliticallandscape

2.1Politicalparties

TheTurkishpartysystemisregulatedbythe1982Constitutionthatwasdraftedbythe military( 64
).ThirtysignaturesofTurkishcitizenswhoareeligibletobeelectedtothe parliamentmustbegatheredinordertoformaparty.Allpoliticalpartiesmusthavetheir headquartersinthecapital,Ankara.Theirinternalworkinganddecisionsmustrespect democraticprinciples( 65
). Turkishcitizensover18yearsoldareentitledtoform,join,andwithdrawfrompolitical parties.Somegroupsarenotallowedtobecomemembersofparties.Theseare: '[j]udgesandprosecutors,membersofhigherjudicialorgans,teachingstaffat institutionsofhighereducation,membersoftheCouncilofHigherEducation, civil servantsinpublicorganizationsandcorporations,andotherpublicemployeesnot regardedasworkersonaccountofthedutiestheyperform,students,andmembers oftheArmedForces'( 66
). Partiesareallowedtogetfundingfromtheirmembers,corporationsandlegalbodies,andthe state,asstatedinthePoliticalPartiesLaw.Localadministrations,publicinstitutionsand agenciesarenotallowedtodonateproperty,assetsorprivilegestoparties( 67
).

2.1.1JusticeandDevelopmentParty,AKP

TheJusticeandDevelopmentParty(AdaletveKalkınmaPartisi,AKP)isthebiggestpartyin Turkey.Astherulingparty,AKPholdsthepositionsofPrimeMinister(BinaliYıldırım)and

President(RecepTayyipErdoOEan)(

68
). TheAKPwasestablishedin2001bythemodernistwingoftheIslamistmovement(embodied bytheRefahandthenFaziletPartisiinthe90s)( 69
).Itisaconservative,IslamicͲinspiredparty, thatpromotesliberalmarketeconomyandseekstoenhanceTurkey'sroleintheregion.Since

2012thepartyhasbeentryingtotransformtheTurkishsystemofgovernancefroma

parliamentaryintoapresidentialsystembyattemptingtodraftanewconstitutionfor which itneedsatwoͲthirdmajorityinparliament.Inthelastparliamentaryelections,theAKPwon themajorityrulewith317seats,whichisnotenoughtomaketheseconstitutional changes( 70
). AKP'shighestpermanentdecisionͲmakingbodyistheCentralDecisionandExecutiveBoard (MerkezKararveYönetimKuruluͲMKYK).ItstasksaretodecideonAKP'spositionsonpolitical issues,implementpoliciesandshapeelectionstrategy.AKPhelditsannualconventionon ( 64
)GlobalSecurity,TurkeyͲPoliticsͲBackground,n.d. ( 65
)TurkishElections,PoliticalParties,n.d. ( 66
)TurkishElections,PoliticalParties,n.d. ( 67
)TurkishElections,PoliticalParties,n.d. ( 68
)BBCNews,TurkeyPMAhmetDavutoglutoquitamidreportsofErdoOEanrift,5May2016;Reuters,Turkey's newprimeministerwinsvoteofconfidenceinparliament,29May2016. ( 69
)KiriƔci,Kemal,'ReligionasanArgumentintheDebateonTurkishEUMembership',2008;Atuk,Esra,Lespartis

de"visionnationale":despartisJanusdanslesystèmepolitiqueturc,2009;Marcou,Jean,'IslamismeetpostͲ

islamismeenTurquie',2004,p.587;Burdy,JeanͲPaul&Marcou,Jean,LaTurquie

àl'heuredel'Europe,2008,pp.

72Ͳ75.

( 70
)CarnegieEurope,Turkey'sPolitialParties,26October2015(updated6November2015);Guardian(The), Turkeyelection:ErdoOEanandAKPreturntopowerwithoutrightmajority,2November2015.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ25



12September2015.ItreͲelectedPrimeMinisterAhmetDavutoOEluasitschairmanandvoted

fornewmembersforMKYK( 71
). FormerPrimeMinisterAhmetDavutoOEluresignedon5May2016bothasPrimeMinisterand aschairmanoftheparty,becausetheMKYKdecidedtotakebackfromhimtheauthorityto appointprovincialandlocalheadsoftheparty.Afteranextraordinarypartyconventionon

22May2016

hewassucceededbyBinaliYıldırım( 72
).

2.1.2RepublicanPeople'sParty,CHP

Establishedin1923byMustafaKemalAtatürk,theRepublicanPeople'sParty(Cumhuriyet HalkPartisi-CHP)isTurkey'soldestparty.ItwasTurkey'ssinglepartyfrom1923to1946. ThepartyinitiallystrivedtodefendKemalistvaluesofrepublicanismandsecularism,butsince the70sithasalsoembracedsocialͲ democraticvaluesandstrivedtobethebackboneofthe Turkishleft.TheCHPcriticisedthe1971militaryintervention,despiteitsKemalistandsecular values,andwasdissolvedafterthe1980coup.Thepartywassetupagainduringthe1980s whenTurkeyreturnedtodemocracyanditwasreͲestablished throughitsoriginalnamein

1993underthesupervisionofDenizBaykal,whoexertedastronginfluenceontheparty

duringthetwonextdecades.In2010,Baykalwasforcedtoresignafteraclandestinelyshot videotapeofhimwasleakedtothemedia( 73
).

ThenewleaderoftheCHP,KemalKılıçdaroOElu(

74
)wasbornintheKurdishAleviprovinceof Tunceli(DersiminKurdish)inthesouthͲeasternpartofthecountry.Accordingtopress reports,hetriestoreformthepartyandtoprovokearenewalofitsideasbyadvocatinga moreflexiblesecularismandasocialͲdemocraticprogram( 75
).Currentlyinparliament,CHPis themainoppositionparty( 76
).TheCHPisaffiliatedtoboththeProgressiveAllianceandthe

SocialistInternational(

77
).

2.1.3NationalistMovementParty,MHP

TheNationalistMovementParty(MilliyetçiHareketPartisi-MHP/NationalistActionParty) wasestablishedin1969byAlparslanTürkeƔ,theleaderofTurkishultranationalism.He succeededtotheRepublicanVillagersNationParty(CumhuriyetKöylüMilletPartisi-CKMP) whichembodiedtheextremeͲrightcauseafterdifferentpartyexperiences andsplitsduring the1950s( 78
). MHPisconsideredbysourcesasafarͲrightpartywhichdoesnotadvocateforTurkey's membershipintheEuropeanUnion.ItopposesKurdishaspirationsforautonomyandpeace processwiththegovernmentandPKK( 79
).Thepartyreturnedinparliamentin2007afterit wasnotabletocrossthe10%thresholdin2002.Duringthe7June2015electionsitachieved ( 71
)CagaptayS.,Yolbulan,C.andKilincA.,TheAKP'sNewFace,8October2015. ( 72
)BBC,TurkeyPMAhmetDavutoglutoquitamidreportsofErdoOEanrift,5May2016;Reuters,Turkey'snew primeministerwinsvoteofconfidenceinparliament,29May2016. ( 73
)Economist(The),ScandalBringsdownTurkey'smainoppositionleader,Sex,liesandvideos,13May2010; Burdy,JeanͲPaul&Marcou,Jean,LaTurquieàl'heuredel'Europe,2008,pp.67Ͳ69. ( 74
)HurriyetDailyNews,Seeking'HisPresident'sOpposition'inTurkey,11April2016. ( 75

)HürriyetDailyNews,Bildirici,Faruk,CitizenKiliçdaroglu:Turkishoppositionchiefinhisownwords,7November

2010.
( 76
)CarnegieEurope,Turkey'sPolitialParties,26October2015(updated6November2015). ( 77
)ProgressiveAlliance,Participants,n.d.;SocialistInternational,AboutusͲMemberpartiesoftheSocialist

International,n.d.

( 78
)Altunisik,MelihaBenli&Tür,Özlem,Turkey,Challengesofcontinuityandchange,2005,pp.33Ͳ37. ( 79
)GlobalSecurity,NationalistMovementParty(MHPMilliyetçiHareketPartisi),n.d.;Guardian(The),Turkey election:ErdoOEanandAKPreturntopowerwithoutrightmajority,2November2015.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ26

 agoodscorebygetting80seatsbutlosthalfofthemintheelectionsofNovember2015,and haslessdeputies(40)inthecurrentparliamentthantheKurdishHDP.Sincethesepoor electionresultstheparty'sleaderDevletBahcelihasbeenunpopularbutaimsatareͲelection, accordingtopressreports( 80
).Hisopponentsaretryingtoarrangeapartyconventiontoelect anewchairman( 81
).Thedatefortheextraordinarypartycongresshasbeenpostponeduntil alocalcourthasruledonthelegalityofadissidentcongressheldon19June2016( 82
). Accordingtopressreports,aftertheattemptedcoupof15July2016DevletBahçeliaccused theparty'sinternaloppositionofreceivingsupportfromtheGülenMovement;dissident leaderMeralAkƔenerwasexpelledfromthepartyinSeptember2016( 83
).

2.1.4People'sDemocraticParty,HDP

ThePeople'sDemocraticParty(HalklarınDemokratikPartisi,HDP,inKurdishPartiya DemokratîkaGelan)isthelatestoftheKurdishͲfocusedpartiescreatedinTurkeysincethe beginningofthe1970s:HEP,DEP,ÖZDEP,HADEP,DEHAP,DTP,BDP,HDP.However,contrary toitspredecessorstheHDPwasnot createdtosucceedapartybannedbytheConstitutional Court.Formallyfoundedin2012,itisthepoliticalbranchofaunionofleftͲwingpolitical organisations,thePeople'sDemocraticCongress.ItgraduallyreplacedtheBDPbeforethe formerdisappearedin2014( 84
). LedbySelahattinDemirtaƔjointlywithFigenYüksekdaOE,thenewpartytriedtoenlargeits electoralandsocialbasisandandtoaddresssocialgroupsneglectedbytheRepublicsuchas women,Alevis,Christians,Armenians,environmentalistsandLGBT( 85
).SelahattinDemirtaƔ wastheHDPcandidatetothepresidentialelectionin2014andwon9.7%ofthevotes.This scoreledthepartytobelieveitwouldbeabletocrossthe10%thresholdinthenext parliamentaryelections.Theparty,whichfocusedontheKurdishissue,has alreadyagroup intheparliamentsince2007butitsdeputieswereelectedasindependentcandidates.Forthe

2015electionstheHDPdecidedtopresentafulllistintheprovincialconstituenciesofthe

wholecountry( 86
).Thepartygained13%ofallvotesinthelegislativeelectionson

7June2015andenteredtheparliament.ItwasthefirsttimeinTurkey'shistorythataproͲ

Kurdishpartysucceededtodosobypresentingitsownlistsandnotindependent candidates( 87
). InNovember2015,astheAKPregaineditsabsolutemajorityintheelections,theHDPgot

10.7%ofthevotes,sufficienttocrossthe10%threshold.IthadmoreseatsthanthefarͲright

MHPandbecamethethirdpartyintheparliament(

88
).DuetothissuccesstheHDPhasbeen ( 80

)Altunisik,MelihaBenli&Tür,Özlem,Turkey,Challengesofcontinuityandchange,2005,p.64;JeanͲPaulBURDY

&JeanMARCOU,LaTurquieàl'heuredel'Europe,2008,p.76;HürriyetDailyNews,MHPdissidentsgarnerenough supportforextraordinaryconvention,19June2016;HürriyetDailyNews,MHPneedsa renaissance,saysresigned official,23June2016. ( 81
)Tol,G.,Davutoglu'sResignation:WhatitMeansforTurkey,5May2016. ( 82
)Reuters,LeadershiprowinTurkey'snationalistoppositionhelpsErdoOEan,30May2016;AA,Turkey:Court rulingneededondisputedMHPcongress,27June2016. ( 83
)HürriyetDailyNews,Turkey'sMHPexpelsdissidentMeralAkƔenerfromparty,8September2016. ( 84
)HDPEurope,HistoryofKurdishPoliticalPartiesinTurkey,n.d. ( 85
)HürriyetDailyNews,InclusiveHDPcandidatelistaspirestopass10pctelectionthreshold,7April2015. ( 86

)HürriyetDailyNews,PresidentialcandidateDemirtaƔ:'TurkeyfanningtheflamesoftheMiddleEast',21July

2014;HürriyetDailyNews,HDP'scandidatevowstocarrythetorchofchange,10August2014;NewYorkTimes/

Akyol,Mustafa,CanKurdsShakeUpTurkey'sPolitics?,2June2015;AydintasbaƔ,Asl

ı,KurdsShapingTurkey's

PoliticalMap,TheWashingtonInstitute,23April2015.

( 87
)Guardian(The),Turkeyelectionresults:whatyouneedtoknow,8June2015;CarnegieEurope,Turkey'sPolitial Parties,26October2015,updated6November2015;AlJazeera,What'sbehindTurkey'sbillofimmunity,29May 2016.
( 88
)BBC,Turkeyelection:RulingAKPregainsmajority,2November2015.

EASOCOIREPORTTURKEY:COUNTRYFOCUSͲ27

 seenasapossiblereformerofTurkishpolitics,ifitwouldgainenoughpower( 89
).Butthe armedconflictagainstPKKandcourtcasesagainstthepartymembers,inparticularthelifting ofimmunityformembersofparliamenton20May2016(mainlytargetingHDPmembers) couldpossiblymarginalisetheparty,accordingtomediasources( 90
).

2.1.5FelicityParty,SP

TheFelicityParty(SaadetPartisi,SP)isthelatestofthepartiesthathavebeencreatedsince the1970sbyNecmettinErbakan,theiconicleaderoftheTurkishIslamistmovementMilli GörüƔ(NationalVision).AfterthesoͲcalledpostmoderncoupofFebruary1997,theendof

Erbakan'sgovernmentin

June1997andthebanoftheRefahPartisi(WelfareParty)

inJanuary1998,theFaziletPartisi(VirtueParty)triedtoresumelegacy.Butconflicts appearedinsidethisnewmovement(especiallyduringitsfirstandonlycongress)opposing thetraditionalistsofErbakantothemodernistsofAbdullahGülandRecepTayyip

ErdoOEan.In

2001againtheFaziletPartisiwasbannedbytheConstitutionalCourt,andpartofitsmembers

foundedtheSP.ItsoughttorepresenttheoldguardoftheTurkishIslamistfamily,the modernistwingofwhichdecided,withAbdullahGülandRecepTayyipErdoOEan,toestablish separatelytheAKP( 91
). DifferentlyfromtheAKP,theSPconsidersitselfasanIslamistparty.AfterErbakan'sdeathin

2011,MustafaKamalakbecametheleaderoftheSP.Sinceitscreationin2001,whiletheAKP

hascometopower,theSPhasneverbeenabletocrossthe10%thresholdin generalelections andsoitneverhadanydeputiesintheparliament.Butitwonsomemunicipalitiesandhasa stronggrassrootsupportinseveralareasofthecountryaswellasatruesocial organisation( 92
).

2.1.6Otherparties

ThePeaceandDemocracyParty(BarıƔveDemokrasiPartisi,BDP,Kurdish:PartiyaAƔtîû

Demokrasiyê)wasaproͲKurdishparty(

93
).Thepartywasfoundedin2008asanextensionof theDTP,theba