[PDF] GRADE 12 CANADIAN HISTORY: A POSTCOLONIAL ANALYSIS A

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GRADE12CANADIANHISTORY:

APOSTCOLONIALANALYSIS.

AThesisSubmittedtotheCollege

of

GraduateStudiesandResearch

inPartialFulfilment oftheRequirements fortheDegree ofMastersofEducation intheDepartment ofEducationalFoundations

University

ofSaskatchewan

Saskatoon

by

T.ScottFarmer

Spring2004

©CopyrightT.ScottFarmer,2004.AllRightsreserved.

PERMISSIONTOUSE

Inpresentingthisthesisinpartialfulfilmentoftherequirementsfora

PostgraduatedegreefromtheUniversity

ofSaskatchewan,Iagreethatthe

Libraries

ofthisUniversitymaymakeitfreelyavailableforinspection.Ifurther agreethatpermissionforcopying ofthisthesisinanymanner,inwholeorinpart, forscholarlypurposesmaybegrantedbytheprofessororprofessorswho supervisedmythesisworkor,intheirabsence,bytheHead oftheDepartmentor theDean oftheCollegeinwhichmythesisworkwasdone.Itisunderstoodthat anycopyingorpublicationoruse ofthisthesisorpartsthereofforfinancialgain shallnotbeallowedwithoutmywrittenpermission.

Itisalsounderstoodthatdue

recognitionshallbegiventomeandtotheUniversity ofSaskatchewaninany scholarlyusewhichmaybemade ofanymaterialinmythesis.

Requestsforpermissiontocopyortomakeotheruse

ofmaterialinthis thesisinwholeorpartshouldbeaddressedto: Head oftheDepartmentofEducationalFoundations

University

ofSaskatchewan

Saskatoon,SaskatchewanS7N

OXl

ABSTRACT

TheHistory30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuideandtheHistory30: CanadianStudiesATeacher'sActivityGuideprovideteachers ofgradetwelve Canadian historydirectionandinstruction.Thisthesisanalysishowtheseguides functionassources ofhistoricalinfonnationtomaintainandcreateanEuro Canadiannationalidentitywhichnonnalisesandnaturalisesthedominantposition ofEuro-CanadianswithinthehistoricalnarrativeofCanada'sdevelopmentfroma colonytoa modemnation.Thepurposeofthisthesisistoidentifyhowthis teaching ofhistoryalienatesAboriginalstudentswhoseculture,values,andhistory arenotvalidated bythishistoricalnarrative,butinsteadaremarginalized. SaskatchewanLearning,thegovernmentdepartmentresponsibleforeducationin

Saskatchewanhasattemptedtoavoidthismarginalizing

byincludingAboriginal contentandperspectiveintothecontentandteachingstrategies oftheguides.

However,

byusingapostcolonialanalysisthisthesisdemonstratesthatthe inclusion ofAboriginalcontentandperspectivedoesnotchangethenarrative structure ofEuro-CanadianhistoryandasaresulttheeffortsofSaskatchewan Learningarenotsuccessful.Thisanalysisexposeshowthelanguage,structureand logicfoundintheguidesmaintainacoloniseddichotomybetweenAboriginal peoplesandEuro-Canadians.Nevertheless,thegoal ofthisresearchisnottoattack orblame,buttoaddtothediscussionamongsteducatorsabouthowtoimprovethe educationalexperiences ofAboriginalyouth. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TherearemanypeopleIneedtothankforthesupportandencouragementI receivedwhilewritingthisthesis.BobLindsay oftheDepartmentofNative

Studies,MarieBattiste,Bob

Regnier,HowardWoodhouse,DonCochraneand

DianneHallman

oftheDepartmentofEducationalFoundationsprovidedmewith theirideasandencouragementduringclasseswhenIwastheirstudentandinmany casualbutenlighteningconversations.Ithankthemfortheirtimeandenthusiasm.I amindebtedtothemembers ofmycommitteefortheirpatience,effortsand insights.IwouldliketothankMichaelCottrellwhoservedastheexternal examinerandofferedinsightsthatIhadnotyetthoughtof.Iextend my appreciationandthankstoLYnnLemiskowhoalsoofferednewideasI incorporatedintothisthesis.SamRobinsonnotonlyservedasacommittee memberbutalsoasavolunteermentorandeditor.Hisinfluenceandhelpwere invaluable.Icouldnothavecompletedthisthesiswithoutthehelpandguidance of mysupervisorVernaSt.Denis.Shehasgivenmethedirection,focusand confidenceneededtowritethisthesis.LastbutcertainlynotleastIneedtoextend thankstoall myfamilyandfriendsfortheirhelpandsupport.TomywifeLaYfa andmychildrenMichael,BradyandKatieIthankyouforyourlove,supportand patience.Thekidscanhavetheircomputerback! 111

TableofContents

PERMISSIONTOUSE

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLEOFCONTENTS

CHAPTER

I:PURPOSEANDSETTING

1.1TheProblem

1.2

MyBackground,position,modelsandinspirations

1.3TheGoals

ofSaskatchewanLearning

1.4TheHistory30CurriculumandActivityGuides

1.5Methodology

1.5.1DefiningCurriculumasDiscourse

1.5.2Postmodernism,PostcolonialismandCurricula

1.6TheFramework

ofAnalysis

1.7UseandExplanation

ofTerms

CHAPTERII:POSTCOLONIALANALYSES

2.1Introduction

2.2HistoryasaVehicleforColonialism

IV 11 111
IV 1 1 3 8 11 15 15 18 22
23
25
25
27

2.3RankingandClassifying38

2.4ControllingTime42

2.5CanadianIdentityandtheCulturalIdentityof"others"48

CHAPTERIII:TELEOLOGYANDDIALECTICS58

3.1Introduction58

3.2NationalMythsandIdentity59

3.3TeleologyandHistory60

3.4TeleologicalPracticesintheGuide63

3.4.1Roots;Roads;Paths;andSteps65

3.4.2FallingoffthePath72

3.4.3ArrivingattheEndoftheRoad78

3.5DialecticReasoning85

3.6DialecticReasoningandSaskatchewanLearning86

3.7TheDifficultyinDefiningDialectics87

3.8FindingCommonGroundaboutDialectics90

3.9TheProblematicNatureofDialectics91

CHAPTERIV:Conclusions100

4.1Introduction100

4.2Implications104

4.3Recommendations105

4.3.1RethinkingtheNarrative106

4.3.2RethinkingPersonalPractice107

References110

v

CHAPTERI

PURPOSEANDSETTING

1.1TheProblem

IntheriseoftheWest,theachievementofsuperiorityhasbeen accomplishednotonlybytheswordandcross,butalso byaphilosophyof historythathasusedtimeandplaceasconceptualtoolsfordividingthe worldaccordingtotheinterests ofimperialism.(Willinsky,1998,p.134)

Asthisquotationindicates,thetelling

ofhistoryintheWesternworld functionsnotonlyasarecordandananalysis ofpastevents,butalsoasatoolto justifyandrationalisethepractices ofcolonialism.Likeotherwesterncountries

Canada'shistoryisintegrallylinkedwiththepractice

ofimperialismand colonialism,withlargeparts ofitbeingarguablynothingbutthestoryofCanada's creationasacolonialstateanditsrelationshipswithotherimperialpowers (Owram,1998).Thisthesisarguesthatsources ofhistoricalinformationand analysis,suchasthe

History30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuideandthe

History30:CanadianStudiesATeacher'sActivityGuidefunction,asWilinskyhas suggested, bytellingthestoryofCanada'scolonialpastwhilevalidatingits colonialpracticesasnormalandnaturaloccurrences.Becausethe

History30:

CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuide

andtheHistory30:CanadianStudiesA

Teacher'sActivityGuide

(hereafterreferredtoastheguidesunlessspecified separately)arekeyresourcesforgradetwelveteacherstheysignificantlyinfluence howSaskatchewanstudentsunderstandcolonialism andtheimpact ofcolonialism inshapingtheirunderstanding ofCanada.ByrationalisingandjustifyingCanada's colonialpracticestheguidesfailtoaddressone ofthemostimportantgoalsofthe

Department

ofEducationinSaskatchewanthatbeingthepositiverepresentationof Aboriginalpeoples,culturesandhistory(SaskatchewanEducation,1997b).

Thefailure

ofthecurriculumandactivityguidestopositivelyrepresent Aboriginalpeople,culturesandhistoryoccursforseveralreasons.First,the narrativestructure ofCanadianhistory,whichasaproductofEuropeanculturein thefirstplace,inherentlysupportsthestory ofEuro-Canadiansbyvalidatingand promotingsuchconceptsastheinevitablemarch oftechnologicalandeconomic progress.Secondly,the guidessubtlyandsometimesnotsosubtly,continueto maintainthe colonialdichotomybetweenEuro-CanadiansandAboriginalpeoples.

Withinthisdichotomythe

guidesmaintainEuro-Canadiancultureasthedominant cultureinrelationtoAboriginalculture.Theguidesfurtherenhancethisdichotomy throughavariety ofwords,concepts,imagesandmetaphorswhoseoriginsare linkedwithcolonialpractices(Furniss,1999).Theunequalrelationshipbetween Euro-CanadiansandAboriginalpeoplescontinuestoexpressitselfregardless ofthe inclusion ofAboriginalcontentandperspectiveinthetwoguidesbecausethe guidesdonotaddresscolonialismasthesource ofthatdichotomy.Asaresultof thesefactorstheguidespresentanormalisedandnaturalisedhistoricaland contemporaryCanadiannationalidentity,whichispredominatelyWhiteandEuro Canadian,providingthe"lens"throughwhichstudentsunderstandthenation 2 (Heathom,2000).Therefore,theAboriginalcontentandperspectivenotonlyfails toenhancetheeducation ofAboriginalyouth,butironically,becomespartofthe largerCanadianstoryandservestoauthenticateandvalidateCanada'spast, present,andfuture,whichwasandisdominated byaEuro-Canadianinterpretation ofhistory.

Understandingtheconundrum

offailingwithgoodintentions,whichinthis casemeansfailingtoeliminateracismregardless ofhowmuchAboriginalcontent andperspectiveareincludedintheguides,canbest beexpressedbyborrowing

AudreLorde'squote,"

...themaster'stoolswillneverdismantlethemaster's house"(Lorde,1979,p.98).ThoughLordewasreferringspecificallytofeminist issues,heranalogyprovidesathemefor myanalysisofCanadianhistory.Cantrue change,andreform,againstoppressionanddominationoccur ifthevehicleused forthatchange,andreform,servesasourceortool oftheoriginaloppressionand domination? Inotherwords,ifthelanguage,logic,metaphorsandnarrativeof Canadian historyareasourceofthemarginalizingofAboriginalpeoples,thenhow canCanadianhistoryasrepresentedinthecurriculumandactivityguidesnotdo thesamething iftheguidesusethesamelanguageandstructure.Howthisfailure occursandhowthatfailureimpactstheeducation ofSaskatchewanstudentsisthe focus ofthisstudy. 1.2

Mybackground,position,modelsandinspirations

In1979attheUniversityofSaskatchewanallhistorymajorsandEducation students,likemyself,majoringinhistory,wererequiredtotakeafullcreditin 3 Canadian historyatthesecondyearlevel.Therationale,ifIrecall,wasthat studentsstudYinghistory,especiallythosewhowereplanningtoteachhistory, neededasolid groundinginCanadianhistorytofacilitatethedevelopmentofgood citizenship.Thetextforthatclasswas

Canada:APoliticalandSocialHistoryand

waswrittenbyaYorkUniversityProfessornamedEdgarMcInnis(1969).I enjoyedreadingthebook,andasrecentlyastenyearsago,Istilluseditasasource ofinformationformyteaching.Formanystudents,myselfincluded,thisbook servedasasource ofknowledgeaboutCanadianhistory.Intheopeningchapterof thebook,inasectioncalledthe"Aborigines"Mcinnisprovidesthefollowing explanation:

TheEuropeanswhocametotheshores

ofNorthAmericaregardeditasa vacantcontinent,whichlaycompletelyopentosettlementfromtheOld WorId.Inthefinalanalysisthisassumptionwasjustified.

Itistruethatthe

continentwasalreadyinhabited bytribeswhoclaimedthelandastheir own.Butinthewhole ofCanadatherewereprobablynomorethan220,000 Indians,andinneithernumbersnorculturenorpoliticalorganisationwere theystrongenoughtoholdtheirvasthunting groundsagainstthepressure ofland-hungryEuropeans. Theaboriginesmadenomajorcontributiontotheculturethatdeveloped in thesettledcommunitiesofCanada....Evenwhentheadvanceofsettlement pushedthemout oftheiraccustomedhuntinggrounds,theIndiansfailedto adaptthemselvestothenewsituationandresistedabsorptionintothenew society.Theyremainedaprimitiveremnantclingingtotheirtribal organisationlongafterithadbecomeobsolete.(McInnis,1969,pp.10-11)

TheabovequotationfromEdgarMcInnisisanexample

ofhowasourceof Canadianhistoryjustifiesandrationalisesthepracticesofcolonialism.According toMcInnisAboriginallandwaseffectivelyemptywhichmeansthatitwasopenfor occupation,andthatoncethatlandwasoccupiedAboriginalpeoplesremaineda "primitive"peopleandwhodidnotcontributetothecreationordevelopment of 4 Canada.Iprovidethisexampleasacontrastbetweenpasteducationalpracticesand contemporaryinitiatives.

Inmyopinion,McInnis'wordsare,bycontemporary

standards,racistandoffensive,andwouldnot beacceptedinanyclassroomin Saskatchewan.However,Iargueinthisthesisthatthelanguageinthecurriculum andactivityguides,thoughneitherracistnorpurposelyhostilecontinues,asdoes thewords ofMcInnis,tomarginalizeAboriginalpeoples,culturesandhistory.

Whiletheabove

paragraphindicatesalevelofpessimismthepurposeof thisstudyisnottobenegativebuttocreateapointofdiscussionanddebate concerningtheimprovement ofeducationforAboriginalstudentsinSaskatchewan.

SaskatchewanLearninghasplacedtheimprovement

ofAboriginaleducationas oneofitsmostpressingpriorities.MostteachersIhavemetinmytwentyyearsof teachinghavesharedthispriority.Asateacherofsocialstudies/historyandof CanadianStudiesspecifically,IbelievethatmycolleaguesandIhaveacriticalrole toplayinreachingouttoAboriginalstudents byprovidingsocialstudies/history classroomsthatrepresentandrespecttheirhistoryandculturalheritage,aswellas that ofthemajorityEuro-Canadians.Althoughmyanalysishasoftencriticisedthe efforts ofSaskatchewanLearning,thepurposenevertheless,istosupportitslong termgoalsforAboriginaleducationandthoseteacherswhosupportAboriginal educationinSaskatchewan.

AconcernIhadwhileworking

onthisthesisisthatImaybeperceivedas claimingtherighttospeak onbehalfofAboriginalpeoplesassomesortof spokespersonorexpert,whichIneitheram,nordesiretobe.FortunatelyIhave found,inthewritings ofscholars,usefulguidelinesforprovidingmethodology, 5 structureofanalysis,inspiration,andideasaboutwhereIcanpositionmyselfin thisstudy.EdwardSaid(1979)inhisbook

Orientalismhasprovidedmewitha

locationtoworkfrom.ThoughSaidisoriginallyfromtheMiddleEasthestresses thathisstudy of"Orientalism"haslittleto"contribute"totherealstruggles,lives andhistory ofthepeoplewholiveintheMiddleEastandAsia,becausehisstudyis notabouttheOrient,butisinsteadabouttheEuropeanswhocreatedtheidea of "Orientalism"(Said,1979,pp.3-5)."Orientalism"asaEuropeanconceptservedas avehiclefortheWesttoexercisepoweroverboththeMiddleEastandAsia, by definingfortheEuropeans,andfortheEast,whattheEastwas,andinsodoing, helpedtodefinethemselvesthroughtheapparentcontrastbetweenthetwo civilisations(Said,1979).

Inmuchthesameway,theWesthasdefinedthe

Aboriginalpeoples

ofCanada,throughtheoriginalEuropeanexplorersandsettlers andinthelastonehundredfiftyyears bythosewhocreatedEuro-Canadiansociety. Therefore,inthisthesisIhaveprovidednotsomuchananalysis ofAboriginal peoples,butananalysis oftheEuro-Canadians,who,throughvehiclessuchasthe History30CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuideandtheHistory30:Canadian

StudiesATeacher'sActivityGuide,

exercisepowerbydefiningwithinanon AboriginalhistorywhoandwhatAboriginalpeopleareandhavebeen. IhavealsoborrowedideasfromJohnWillinsky(1998).Hisgoals,which hearticulatesinhisbook

LearningtoDividetheWorld:EducationatEmpiresEnd

providearationaleandexampleofthecontributionthatmyresearchcanplayinthe education ofSaskatchewanyouth."Iseektoachievewiththisbookadegreeof educationalaccountability.Althoughthisphrasetypicallyreferstoholdingteachers 6 responsibleforstudentachievementscoresonstandardisedtests,whatIhavein mindisthateducatorsowethosetheyteachsomeaccount-ifalwayspartial-ofwhat wehavetaughtthemabouttheworld"(Willinsky,1998,p.16).Willinsky'slist of conceptsanditemstobeaccountableforreflectalistthatforthemostpartI appliedtothisstudy.Hesuggeststeachersmustgiveanaccount ofhowsourcesof historyhaveconstructedtheworldtoacceptsomeandnotothers;toexaminehow theworldhasbeendividedbetween"EastandWest,primitiveandcivilised"andto showhowhistoryteachershaveplayedasignificantpartinitsperpetuation (Willinsky,1998,p.16).Todothis,teacherswillhavetounderstandhow historianshaveconstructedthestoryornarrative ofhistoryandacquire,forthe benefit oftheirstudents,newanddifferentwaystointerpretthenarrativeaccounts ofhowCanadacametobe. TheHistory30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumandActivityGuides representpart ofthelargergrandnarrativeofCanadianhistory.AsLytotardhas indicates"narrativesallowthesocietyinwhichtheyaretold,ontheonehand,to defineitscriteria ofcompetenceand,ontheother,toevaluateaccordingtothose criteriawhatisperformedorcanbeperformedwithinit.(Lyotard,1979,p.20).By narrativesLyotardisreferringtothegrandnarrativeswhichpeopleandsocieties havecreatedtoexplaintheirworldandhow itfunctionsandatthesametimedeny thevalidity ofothernarratives(Sim,1998).SlatterydrawingonLyotarddefines thegrandnarrativeormetanarrativeas"anytheorythatattemptstoprovidea universal,all-encompassingnarrative ofthewaythattheworldworks,people 7 shouldbehave,textsshouldbeinterpreted,governmentsshouldbestructured,[and] schoolsshould beorganised...(Slattery,2000,p.133). InresponsetothisIhaveborrowedthetermcounternarrativesfromthe book Counternarratives:CulturalStudiesandCriticalPedagogiesinPostmodern

Spaces

(Giroux,1996).Inthisbooktheauthorsrefertocounternarrativesasa challengetotheWesternmetanarrativethatislinkedwithstories ofevolutionary progressandachievement.Theyalsoimplythatthecounternarrativecan specificallychallengegrandnarrativeswhichhavespecificpoliticalpurposes involvingtheexercise ofpower(Giroux,1996).LikeWillinsky'sdefinitionof accountability,Ihavefoundthatsearchinganddevelopingacounternarrativetothe historicalnarrativefoundinthecurriculumandactivityguidescanexposehow Aboriginalpeopleshavebeen,andarerepresentedtobothAboriginalandnon

Aboriginalstudents.While

myanalysisdealswithhowthegrandnarrativeoperates asacolonialtoolthepurpose ofthatanalysisistocreateopportunitiesforthe building ofacounternarrativethatcanprovideanalternativewayofunderstanding therelationshipbetweenAboriginalandEuro-Canadianhistory.

1.3TheGoalsofSaskatchewanLearning

Beginningin1982SaskatchewanLearningestablishedaseriesofinitiatives to"improvetheeducationalexperience ofAboriginalstudentsinSaskatchewan schoolsfromkindergartentogradetwelve"(SaskatchewanEducation,1998,p. 1). BettereducationforAboriginalyouthinSaskatchewanwouldmean,firstand foremost,thatAboriginalstudentsshouldbeassuccessful,andhavethesame opportunitiesforsuccessasnon-Aboriginalstudentsintheclassroom 8 (SaskatchewanEducation,2000).Success,however,wouldnotbemeasuredonly interms ofmarksandgradesachieved.Alongwiththesetraditionalindicators, SaskatchewanLearningestablishedgoalstocreateaneducationalenvironment whereAboriginalstudentswouldfeelasense ofbelongingandworth.Thiswould occurwhenAboriginalstudentsrecognisedthattheeducationalenvironment includedtheirculturalvaluesandheritage.Aswasstated intheAboriginal

EducationInitiatives

inSaskatchewanEducationReport,"Studentsneedalearning environmentinwhichtheyareatease;theyneedto betaughtinamanner compatiblewiththeirbackgroundsandlearningstyles;theyneedtoseetheirworld reflectedinsubjectmatterandcontent;theyneedtofeelthattheyareapart ofa learningcommunity"(p.3). One ofthestrategiesimplementedforachievingthisobjectivewastoseek theadvice ofAboriginaleldersandsupportgroupswithintheAboriginal community,whileatthesametimeaccessingothercommunityandgovernment agenciesandresourceswithintheprovincestoensurethetotaldevelopment of eachstudent(SaskatchewanEducation,2000).Anothercriticalstrategyinvolved theinclusion ofAboriginaltopics,ideasandperspectivesinallsubjectstoensure thatAboriginalstudentsandnon-AboriginalstudentswouldlearnthatAboriginal cultureandhistoryhavemadeupanintegralpart ofthehistoryofSaskatchewan andCanadiansociety(SaskatchewanEducation,1998).

Bybecomingawareof,and

appreciatingtherole ofAboriginalcultureandhistory,bothAboriginalandnon AboriginalstudentswouldlearnthatAboriginalcultureandpeoplesmust playa valuableroleinthefutureofSaskatchewanandCanada(SaskatchewanEducation, 9

1998;SaskatchewanEducation,2000).Thisviewhasrecentlybeenreiteratedinthe

AboriginalEducationProvincialAdvisoryCommittee:ActionPlan2000-2005, whichstates: Thereisanurgentneedforactionattheschoollevel.Previousactionplans haveresulted inthedevelopmentofpolicies,partnerships,andstructures essentialtothedevelopmentandimplementation ofprograms.Wenow wanttosee theeffectsofAboriginaleducationinitiativesreflectedinthe successes ofAboriginalstudents,inincreasedknowledgeofAboriginal peoplesandtheirhistory inthegeneralpopulation,andinharmonious relationsamongallpeopleinSaskatchewancommunities.(p.3) One ofthemostimportantstrategiesformeetingtheabovegoalsisin curriculumdevelopment.Becauseteachersusecurriculumguidesasdailyandlong term-planners,andasresources,incorporatingAboriginalcontentandperspectives inthemplaysacriticalroleinallowingteacherstobuildaclassroomenvironment conducivetoSaskatchewan'sLearning'sgoalforAboriginaleducation (SaskatchewanEducation,

1998).Beginninginthe1980'sSaskatchewanLearning

beganaseries ofreformsforsocialstudiesandhistoryeducation.Aspartofthese reformsthe1990'ssawarevamping ofhowandwhatstudentswerelearningin gradetwelveCanadiansocialstudiesandhistory.

Asaresultofthesereforms

CanadianhistorybecameknownasCanadianStudiesandgradetwelvestudents couldcompletetheirhistoryrequirement bytakingeitherHistory30:Canadian

Studies;SocialStudies30:CanadianStudies;

orNativeStudies30:Canadian

Studies.

Regardlessofwhichoptionstudentschoosecommonthemes,concepts, andvaluesaboutCanadaandaboutbeingaCanadianarecovered,thougheach coursehasadifferentfocusinterms ofspecificcontent(SaskatchewanEducation,

1997b).Aboriginalcontentandperspectiveare

keyconceptsincorporatedinto 10 theseguideswiththeintentionthatallstudentscompletinggradetwelvehavea solidunderstandingandappreciation ofAboriginalcultureandhistoryandasense ofacommonfuture(SaskatchewanEducation,1997b). Ofthesecurricula,theHistory30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuide anditsaccompanyingactivityguidearethemosttraditionalintheirformatand contextincoveringthechronologicaldevelopment ofCanada.Asaresult,the guidesprovideaneducationalopportunitytobringtheAboriginalandnon

Aboriginalstories

ofCanadatogethertomeetSaskatchewanLearning'sAboriginal educationobjectives.TheintentisthatAboriginalstudentswillfeelthattheir historyisapart ofthehistoryofCanadaandnon-Aboriginalstudents,especially thosewhoareEuro-Canadian,canbroadentheirperspectiveonahistorythat perhapsmanythoughtinvolvedonlypeople ofEuropeandescent.WhileIagree withSaskatchewanLearning'sgoalsIargueinthisthesisthattheinclusion of Aboriginalcontentandperspectiveintheguidesisnotenoughtochangethe negativerepresentation ofAboriginalpeoplesthatisinherentlypartofthe Euro

Canadianhistoricalnarrative.

1.4TheHistory30CurriculumandActivityGuides

Tointroducethis GuideIhaveidentifieditsplacewithinthestructure of curriculumdevelopment.TheHistory30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuide containsfivechronologicalunitswhicharedefinedintermsoftimeandsubject. Thoughtheunitsdealwithdifferenttopicstheyhavethesamestructure.Eachunit issubdividedandeachlessonwithinasubsectionclearlyidentifieslearning objectivesandideasonteachingandevaluationstrategies.Tomanypeoplethis 11 structuremayseemquitenormalbecausemostcurriculumguideshavefollowed thisorderlypattern.Thekeyfor myanalysiswas thatacounternarrrativetothis curriculumguiderequired,notonlytoaretellingandunderstanding ofthehistory foundintheguide,butalsoachallengetothestructure oftheguide.Thisbecame necessarybecause oftheconnectionbetweentheTylerRationalandthecurriculum guide.ThoughtheGuidewaspublishedin1997,itowedalot ofitsstructureto RalphTylerwhofirstdevelopedthiscurriculuminthe1940's. TheTylerRational,asTyler'sprinciplesareknown,hasguidedthe education ofgenerationsofstudentsinSaskatchewanschoolsbecauseofthe influence ofhisideasincurriculumdevelopment.Basedontheprinciplethat curriculumguidesshould belearningplans,Tylercalledforclearlydefined learning,behaviour,andevaluationobjectives(Behar-Horenstein,2000;

Hlebowitsh,2000;Pinar,ReYnolds,Slattery

&Taubman,1995).Evenwiththe reassessment ofeducationandcurriculuminthe1980'sSaskatchewanEducationin Directionscalledforaco-ordinatedandcohesivecurriculumfromkindergartento gradetwelve(Robinson,n.d. ).AlthoughtheTylerRationalhashadastrong impactoncurriculumdevelopment,peopleinterestedindeveloping counternarrativeshavecontesteditbecausecurriculadesignedonhisprinciplesfall withinamodernistnarrativetraditionwhichhasbeenopposedtopostmodern counternarritves.Thisoppositionissignificantbecausepostmodernistcurriculum developers,whohaveprovidedme,aswillbedemonstratedbelow,withasystem ofanalysis,pointtotheTylerRationalasanexpressionofeducationwhichdoes 12 notchallengethesocialandpoliticalstatusquo,butinfactmaintainsit(Behar

Horenstein,2000;Henderson,2000;Slattery,2000).

Thoughthecurriculum

guidewittinglyorunwittinglysupportsthestatus quo ofmodernity,itisanimprovementoveroldermodels.Asmentionedabove, attemptstoincludeAboriginalcontentandperspectivearecommendable.Thisis combinedwithotherattemptsatinnovationwhichincludeusingresource-based learning,conceptattainment,dialecticthinking,challengingstudentswith controversialissuesandvalues,whilealwaysbeingaware ofgenderequityand multiculturalism(SaskatchewanEducation,1997b).Althoughthiscurriculumisa breakfromthepastitneverthelessclearlymaintainsitsrootsintraditionalpractices establishedbyTyler.Thecurriculum guidedefinesintellectualsskillsandeven abstractconceptslikevalueswithinaframework ofsequencedobjectives, evaluationstrategiesandgoals(SaskatchewanEducation,1997b).

Oftheseskills

andevaluations,dialecticthinking,whichthecurriculumguideidentifiesasthe mostimportantintellectualskill,providesanexample ofhowanattempttooffera vehicle ofexploration,andempowermentforstudentsfunctionstomaintainthe statusquo.AsIhavediscussedinmuchgreaterdetailinalatterpart ofthisthesis, thedialecticappliedtocontroversialissuesonlyconfirmsEuro-Canadian dominance.Dialecticthinkingalongwiththeotherinnovationsinthecurriculum guideplaysasecondaryroletotheoutline ofthecontentwhichdirectsstudentsto theconclusionthattheEuro-Canadianstoryisone ofprogressandachievement. Fromthefirstunittothelastthecurriculumguidepresentsthecontentand skillsinanorderlyandcoherentplan.Thecontent ofthecourse,isdividedintofive 13 chronologicalunits,andisthenfurthersubdivided.Thefirstunit"Relationships: PeopleandParadigms"dealswithpre-Europeancontacttotheend ofthe1800's. Aswiththeotherfourunits,thecurriculumguidedefinescorecontentand concepts,andgivesspecificrecommendedtimeallotmentsrangingfromoneto fourhours.Alongwiththesetheguidealsohighlightsfoundationalobjectives whichstudentsshouldknow bythetimetheyarefinishtheunit.Forexample,each studentshould"Knowthatassimilationisthebeliefthatwhenaweakerand supposedlyinferiorculturecomesintocontactwithasuperiorculture,peoplefrom theinferiorculturecanbeeducatedtounderstandandpractisethenorms ofthe superiorculture"(SaskatchewanEducation,1997b,p.108).Thisstatementwill drawalot ofattentionintheanalysissectionofthisthesis.Onceteachershas familiarisedthemselveswiththefoundationalobjectivestheycanmoveontothe unit inwhicheverypagefurtheridentifiescontent,concepts,skills,valuesand evaluationstrategies. Oncestudentsfinishexploringthefirstunit,whichcoverstheperiodfrom "Precolonialtimes"toLordDurham'sReporttheymoveontothesecondunit"The NineteenthCentury:TheRoadtoDemocracy"whichcoversthetimeperiodfrom theearly1800'suptothestart oftheFirstWorldWar.Thenextthreeunits respectivelycalled"ExternalForcesandDomesticRealities","TheForces of Nationalism",and"ChallengesandOpportunities"examineinchronologicalorder avastarray oftopics,suchastheWorldWars,FreeTrade,andissuesincluding Quebecseparatism,women'srightsandAboriginalself-government.Althoughthe guidehasreplacedtheoncecommonmemorising offactswithawiderangeof 14 concepts,skillsandvalues,itnevertheless,stickstoaTyler-likeplan,whichasthis descriptionmightindicate,drawsupontraditionalEuro-Canadianhistorical referencestoprovideitsstructure.Withinthistraditionliestheproblem ofwhythe goals ofSaskatchewanLearning'sAboriginalprogramswillbeunderminedthrough theteaching oftheHistory30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuide.Asenseof thiscanbeascertainedbytheguide'sdefinitionofassimilation.Althoughnew emphasisescanbemade,andAboriginalcontentbecomespart ofthecourse,the narrative ofCanadianhistory,asofferedinthisguide,isnotfundamentally differentfromoldersources ofCanadianhistorysuchasMcInnis'Canada:A

PoliticalandSocialHistory,

andasaresulttheguidemaintainsandreinforcesthe dominantposition ofEuro-Canadianswithinthatstory.

1.5Methodology

1.5.1DefiningCurriculumasDiscourse

Themethodologyusedtoexposehowcolonialismstillfunctionsinthe narrative ofCanadian historywasadiscourseanalysis.Adiscourseanalysisofthe History30:CanadianStudiesCurriculumGuideandtheHistory30:Canadian

StudiesActivityGuide

requiresthattheguidesbedefinedasadiscourse.The argumentpresentedinthisthesisreflectsthedefinitionsprovidedinsourceson discourseanalysis.Discoursecanbeviewedasanentitywhichisbuilt bythesocial andpoliticalcontextinwhichitexists,andatthesametimealsobuildsor contributestothebuilding ofthatcontext(Wodak,1996).Discourseisapractice thatproducesidentityandatthesametimeisproductive oftheidentities.Inthis sensetheguidesreflectsthevaluesandbeliefs ofthedominantgroupinCanadian 15 society,andalso"helpstosustainandreproducethesocialstatusquo..."which keepsthatsamegroupdominant(Wodak,1996,p.15).Discourses,inthiscasecan "produceandreproduceunequalpowerrelations ...throughthewaysinwhichthey representsthingsandpositionpeople"(Wodak,1996,p.15).Theguideslikeother discoursesare "asetofmeanings,metaphors,representations,images,stories, statementsandso onthatinsomewaytogetherproduceaparticularversionof events.Itreferstoaparticularpicturethatispaintedofanevent(orpersonorclass ofpersons),aparticularwayofrepresentingitortheminacertainlight"(Burr,

1995,p.48).Thereforeengagingindiscourseanalysisbringsattentiontohow

languageandmeaningparticipateintheproduction ofsocialidentitiesand relations,and inmycasehowtheguidesnotonlyfailtorepresentAboriginal peopleinapositiveimage,butalsocontinuetocreateadominantidentityforEuro-

Canadians.

ThediscourseanalysisthatIwillbeapplyinghasitsrootsin postmodemism.Althoughscholarsdisagreeastoaspecificdefinitions of postmodemismanditsrelatedfieldsIhaveappliedacombinationofpostmodem, deconstructionandpostcolonialapproachestothisdiscourseanalysis(Alba,2000;

Pinar,1995

;Young,1990).RobertYoungprovidesanexampleoftherelationship amongtheseconceptsinhisreferencetothework ofJacquesDerrida. Ifdeconstructionformspartofamorewidespreadattempttodecolonizethe forms ofEuropeanthought,fromthisperspectiveDerrida'sworkcanbe understoodascharacteristicallypostmodem.Postmodemismcanbestbe definedasEuropeanculture'sawarenessthatitisnolongerthe unquestionedanddominantcentre oftheworld....Postmodemism, therefore,becomesacertainself-consciousnessaboutaculture'sown historicalrelativity-whichbeginstoexplainwhy,asitscriticscomplain,it 16 alsoinvolvesthelossofthesenseofanabsolutenessofanyWestern account ofHistory.(Young,1990,p.19) Asestablishedintheprevioussection,thecurriculumandactivityguides arepart oftheWesternhistoricaltraditionthatcontaincertaindefiningvaluesand beliefsthatareacceptedwithinthattradition aspermanentandnaturalexpressions.

Thereforethisanalysissharesthecommonpurpose

ofanyvarietyofdiscourse analysesinthat,asYoung'squotewouldindicate,itseekstoexposecontradictions, inconsistencies,andulteriormotivesinsources ofknowledgethatwouldbeoffered asobjectiveforms ofsocial andmaterialconditions.Thefunctionofdiscourse analysisthenistoacknowledgethatknowledgeissociallyconstructedand thereforethegoalistoexaminehowtheconstruction ofknowledgeisachievedand whoseandwhatpurposeitserves.

Inthecaseoftheguidestheargumentpresented

isthat,asadiscourse,theyconstructsareality ofEuro-Canadiandominancewhich isincontradictiontoSaskatchewanLearning'sphilosophicalgoals ofeducational instructionwithoutracialbias.

Tothosewhomight,

asYoungsuggests,fear"thelossofsenseofan absoluteness ofanyWesternaccountofHistory"(Young,1990,p.19),Ionceagain tumtowardsEdwardSaidforguidance.IntheAfterwordtothe1994republication ofOrientalism,Saiddefendshisworkfromthosewhoaccusehimofbeingtoo politicallyextremeand ofpittingonecultureagainstanother.Hispurposeisnotto provethatonecultureisbetterthananother,butinsteadtoexposethefallacies behindWesternidentitythathavebeenbuilton"theconstruction ofoppositesand 'others'"(Said,1994,p.332).LikeLindaTuhiwaiSmith,Saidbelievesthat 17 history,whichhumanswrite,hasasoneofitspurposestheexerciseofpower. Power,notonlytocontrolsuchthingsasterritory,butalsotodescribeandto defineotherpeoplesandcultures.Thisexercise ofpowerresultsinastrugglefor "historicalandsocialmeaning"(Said,1979,p.331),whichnotonlyexistsinthe abstractworld ofideasandlanguage,butisalsofoundinthephysicalworldthat wastouched bycolonialism,andisstillpresentinmanystruggles,bothglobaland domestic,aroundthe world.Engagingindiscourseanalysisprovidesamethodfor theclassroomteachertoshowhowthetwotypes ofstruggles,abstractand concrete,arenotonlyrelated,butareoneandthesamething."Thetaskforthe criticalscholarisnottoseparateonestrugglefromanother,buttoconnectthem, despitethecontrastbetweentheoverpoweringmateriality oftheformerandthe apparentotherworldlyrefinement ofthelatter"(Said,1994,p.331).Therefore, exposinghowandwhyEuro-Canadianshavebeen,andstillare,part ofthe practices ofcolonialismisthefirststepincreatingacountemarrative.

1.5.2Post-modernism,PostcolonialismandCurricula

Asmentionedabovediscourseanalysisispartofthemovementof postmodemismandpostmodemistscholarshavealsoworkedwithinthediscipline ofcurriculumstudiesandhaveusedpostmodem,andpostcolonialperspectivesto re-evaluatetheassumedmeaningandsignificance oftraditionalcurriculum(Pinar et al.,1995;Slattery,2000).Theireffortshavebeensimilarinnatureandintentto otherpost-modemanalysesinnon-curricularareas,andattimesoverlap,asinthe case ofJohnWillinskywhocritiquesmanysourcesofinformation,ordiscourses, ofwhichonetypeiscurriculummaterials.Aswiththetermsabove,Ihaveused 18 boththetermspostmodernandpostcolonialinfullknowledgeoftheinaccuracies inherentinanyoversimplification ofcomplicatedterms.Scholarswithinthe curriculumfieldalsoprovidesomejustificationfor groupingtheseformsof analysestogether. Tounderstandcurriculumaspoststructuralist,deconstructed,and postmoderntextistoengagemodes ofcognition,methodsofcritiqueand analysis,andversions ofcontemporarycultureandhistory,whichchallenge andsubvertnotonlythecentralthemes,organisingmetaphors,and discursivestrategiesconstitutingWesternthoughtandinformingthe Enlightenmentproject,butallthatismodernismitself,includingthose perspectivesandculturalstructuresassociatedwithmodernism.(Pinaretal. ,1995,p.450)

Applyingthistype

ofanalysishassignificanteducationalimplicationsfora curriculumdocumentthatpurportstorepresentthehistory ofanationandallthe peopleswhomakeupthatnation.AsPinarindicatesinhisbookoncurriculum, if weusetheguidelinesprovidedbyDerridathenhistoryismerely"theagreed-upon meaningwegivetopastexperience",andinthisway"becomesthere-presentation ofthepresentdisguisedasthepast"(Pinaretal.,1995,p.467).Inthissensethe historyoffered inthecurriculumandactivityguidesfunctionstocreateandsupport aCanadiannationalidentitythatthemajorityhaveacceptedasreality.Tobuilda counternarrative,ateacherworkingfromapostmodernperspectiveneedsto "challenges singularinterpretationsofdataandsingularmethodologiesfor curriculumorganisation ..."(Slattery,2000,p.133).Forexample,thisthesisshows howtheguides'portrayal ofeventsinCanada'scolonialpast,thoughoften describedasregrettable,arealsoportrayedasnecessarysteppingstonestothe successfulcreation ofapreconceivedideaofCanada.Teacher'slookingtostarta 19 countemarrativeneedtoquestionandconfrontinterpretationsofCanada'shistory thatassumeanagreeduponunderstanding ofpastandpresentevents.

JohnWilinskyprovidesexamples

ofhowacountemarrativemightfunction withinaCanadiancurriculumsetting bydemonstratingaspecificandpractical model ofcurriculumanalysis.Inhisarticle,"After1492-1992:apost-colonial supplementfortheCanadiancurriculum"heasks howmuchoftheimperialagenda foreducationcanstill befoundinmodemcurriculumguides(Willinsky,1994)? Willinskyclaimsthathisanalysisispost-colonial,whichalthoughindebtedto postmodemismhastheadvantageofbeingmorepracticalandtothepointforthe educator intheclassroom,andtherefore,asSaidhasrecommended,helpsto connectthestrugglebetweentheoryandpractice(Willinsky,1994).Inhisopinion postcolonialismisnotdistractedby, ortiedintothevastarrayofothersubjects,or discoursesassociatedwithpostmodemdiscourseanalyses.(Apple,1999;Blades,

1997;Giroux,1996;Willinsky,1994)."AsIwouldcultivateitwithinthe

educationalsetting,thepost-colonialsupplementisintendedtodevelopcriticaland historically onhowthecurriculum anditstextbookscontinuetoworkwithinglobal structures ofthought"(Willinsky,1994,p.615).

Theseglobalstructures

ofthoughtarepartofanimperialagendabywhich

WillinskyisreferringtotheEuropeansystem

ofclassifyingandorganising knowledgewiththepurpose of"constructing"theworld"intheirown[European] image"based on"racialdifferences"that"amountedtoaconvolutionofknowledge and powerthatincorporatededucationalinterestswithinanassumedmandatefor globaldomination"(Willinsky,1994,p.613-614).

InthesamesensethatPinar

20 suggestsabove,Willinskyoffersasupplementtocurriculumasanattemptto "disrupt"the colonialpracticesthatcanbefoundincurriculumtoday.(Willinsky,

1994).

Iwanttointroducethepedagogicaldevice

ofapost-colonialsupplement designedtocreatealittlespaceinthecurriculumforthinkingaboutthe implications offivecenturiesofaglobalimperialism.Theideaofa supplementistotakehold oftheopportunitieswithinthecurriculumfor askingafter,andlearningmoreabout,thelong-standingcolonialgaze ofthe inveterateeducationaltouristwhoisinspiredtotakeintheworldwithout reflecting onwhatdispositionhascometomeanafterfivecenturiesof inquiry.(Willinsky,1994,p.614).

Someexamplesgiven

byWillinskyapplydirectlytothoseintheanalysis section ofthisthesisandhavealreadybeenusedinmyownclassroom,asIhave triedtoimplementacounternarrative.Willinskyasksthat teachersshowthe connectionbetweenthestruggleswithinCanadafornationalidentityand recognitionwithotherstrugglesaroundtheworldthatareconnected bythelegacy andpresentreality ofcolonialism.TheattemptsanddesiresofFrenchnationalism andthebattlesbeingwaged byFirstNationsforlandclaims,self-governmentand othergrievancesarenotisolateoccurrencesbypeoplewho"hate"Canada,but insteadarepart ofaglobalmovementthatseektoaddresswhotheyareasapeople after500years ofimperialism(Willinsky,1994).ThattheQuebecois'whostruggle tofindanddefinetheirplacewithintheEnglishworldappeartodisclaimthesame rights oftheFirstNationswithinQuebecisnotacontradictionoftheabovepoint, butinsteadisafurtherexample ofthereachandcomplexityofimperialism.So althoughtheFrenchinQuebecmaystillbebattlingtheimpact ofBritish imperialism,theymustalso beseenaspractitionersofthesameimperialismthatis 21
reflectedintheirresistancetothesuggestionbyAboriginalpeopleslivingin QuebecthatifQuebeccanbecomeindependentofCanadathentheNorthernCree ofQuebeccanbecomeindependentofQuebec(Willinsky,1994).Whatisbeing suggestedthenisthatstudentsneedto beexposedtotheperspectivethat imperialismandcolonialismarenot justthingsofthepast,butaretheforceswhich construct muchofourpresentreality.

1.6TheFrameworkofAnalysis

Themethodologyofapostcolonialdiscourseanalysiswillfallwithina three-stepframework.Thefirstpart oftheanalysisspecificallyexploreshowthe language oftheguides,expressedthroughwords,statements,concepts,objectives, studentexercises,summariesandconclusions,functionsasatool ofcolonialismto "dividetheworld"betweenthosewhowerecolonizedandthose whodidthe colonizing(Memmi,1967;Willinsky,1998).

Thegoalistoexposehowthe

language ofcolonialismis"encoded"withintheGuideandbysodoingopenthe possibility ofacounternarrative(Green,1995,p.7).Thesecondpartofthat frameworkexamines howtheconceptofteleologyandtheapplicationofdialectic reasoningfunctionascolonialtoolstorationalizeandjustifythedominant positioning ofEuro-Canadianintheguides.Togethertheyhelptomakethehistory ofCanadaintoanEuro-Canadiangrandnarrativethatbyitsnatureexcludesand manipulatesotherunderstandings ofthepastandpresent.Inthissensetheguides arenot justrecordingandanalysingthepast,butareworkingasforcesof colonialisminformulatingaspecificCanadiannationalidentityandsenseof nationhood.InthethirdpartoftheanalysisIhavesummarisedthoseanalysesand 22
offeredsuggestionsastohowthismightimpactthedevelopmentofa counnternarrativeforteachingCanadianhistoryinSaskatchewanhighschools.

1.7UseandExplanationofTerms

Euro-Canadian:IborrowedthetermEuro-CanadianfromElizabethFurniss'book TheBurdenofHistory:ColonialismandtheFrontierMythinaRuralCanadian

Community

(1999).Sheusestheterm"tospecifythedominantpopulationof WilliamsLakeandtheterm'non-Aboriginal'todesignatethebroaderrangeofcity residents,whichincludesasignificantnumber ofindividualsofEastIndian ancestry"(xi).Ihavechosentousethewordinabroadersensetoindicatean understanding oftheworldmorethanaspecificethnicpopulation.Iamreferringto thoseCanadianswhoarethedescendants ofEuropeans,butIalsomeanthose CanadianswhohaveacceptedandcelebratedtheEuro-centricCanadianhistory thatIcritique inthisthesis.Asanideathistypeofhistoryisspecificallyassociated withtheWhigtradition ofhistorywhichcelebratesandbelievesinthe achievementsandprogress oftheformerBritishEmpire. Discourse:WhenIusethetermdiscourseIamreferringtoabody ofknowledge, suchasacurriculumguide,thatprovidesinformation,butwhileprovidingthat informationbuildsandvalidatesitselfandtheviewsitexpresses.Inthissensea discourseisnotanimpartialsource ofknowledgebutservesacauseoralarger ideasuchasthebuilding ofaCanadiannationalidentity. Postmodern:Ihaveusedthetermpostmodernasstartingpoint byplacingmy analysiswithinitsrangeofmeanings.ByapostmodernanalysisIamsuggesting thattheWesterntradition ofknowledge,valuesandlogiccanandshouldbe 23
challengedforinconsistencies.OneofthoseinconsistenciesishowtheWestern beliefinprogresscoversoverpracticessuchascolonialism.Ialsousethetermto refertothemethod ofexposinghowadiscoursesuchasEuro-Canadianhistorynot onlytransmitsknowledge,butalsousesthatknowledgetoconstructarealitywhich revalidatestheoriginaldiscourse. Postcolonialism:Iusethistermspecificallytoanalysehowcolonisationisnotjust aphysicalmanifestation ofexplorers,soldiers,clergyandadministratorsthat playedaroleinCanada'spast.Insteadpostcolonialismstudieshowcolonialism functionsasanideabothinthepastandmostimportantlyinthepresent.Exposing howcolonialismcontinuestomarginaliseAboriginalpeoplesandconstructaEuro

Canadianidentity

ofprogressandachievementisthepurposeofthisthesis. 24

ChapterII

PostcolonialAnalyses

2.1Introduction

InthischapterIhaveanalyzedtheHistory30:CanadianStudies CurriculumGuideanditsaccompanYingactivityguidewiththepurpose offinding some"educationalaccountability."AccountabilityinthissensereferstoJohn

Willinskyvision

ofteachersbeingabletoexplainhowhistory"dividestheworld" betweenthosewhowerecolonizedandthosewhodidthecolonizing(Memmi,

1967;Willinsky,1998,pp.3-17).HowexactlydoestheGuidemarginalizeand

"other,"Aboriginalpeoplesandtheircollectiveexperiences,whilevalidatingthe role ofEuro-Canadiansintheformationofthehistoricalandcontemporary construction ofCanada(Macintosh,1998).Inthissense"othering"operatesto produceidentity,bynaming,definingandclassifyingasameans ofcontrolover groups ofpeopleorcultureswhichareseparatedfromthegroupdoingthenaming, which,asafunction ofitspowerconsidersitselfthe'norm'(Ashcroft,Griffiths,& Tiffin,2000;Walia,2001).Toanswerthatquestion,inthefirstpartofthisanalysis Ihaveappliedapost-colonialcritiquetodemonstratehowthelanguage of colonialismcreatesandmaintainsthegrandnarrativeofEuro-Canadian dominance. 25
Apost-colonialanalysislooksatthewaycolonialismfunctionedinthepast asbothaphysicalmanifestation ofexplorers,soldiers,clergymen,and administratorsandasanidea,orconcept,whichthrough languageandsymbols, providedtheintellectualfoundationnecessarytoexplain,rationalize,andjustify thepractice ofimperialism(Adams,1989;AshcroftetaI.,2000).Colonialismhas alwaysrequiredanintellectualbasistoaccompanyitsrelatedphysical manifestations.ForexampleDickasonin

TheMythaftheSavagestatesthat"By

classifyingtheAmerindians assavages,Europeanswereabletocreatetheideology thathelpedtomakeitpossibletolaunchone ofthegreatmovementsinthehistory ofwesterncivilisation:thecolonisationofoverseasempires"(Dickason,1984, p.xiii).Thisclassificationoccurredandcontinuedtooccurregardless ofhowit mighthaveconflictedwiththerealitythatconfrontedEuropeans intheirencounters withFirstNations(Dickason,1984).Thatacolonialideologyexisted,detached fromreality,andyetcouldserve, asthebasisforthephysicalrealityofcolonialism isthepoint ofapostcolonialanalysis.

Whatisaddedtothepostcolonialanalysisistheexposing

ofhow colonialism,andtherationalising ofit,stillfunctionswithintheWesternworldasit didinthepast bycreatingdefinitionsandclassificationsthat continuetoserve thosewhohavebenefitedfromcolonisation.Whatmakesthepostcolonialanalysis challengingisthatthemeans bywhichcolonialismfunctionsisnotalwaysas outwardlyapparentasitwasinpastcenturies.Nevertheless,one ofthestrategiesof postcolonialism,asindicatedbypostcolonialwriterssuchasSmith,Willinsky,

Said,Green,andAdams,istoidentifyhowthetelling

ofhistoryhasbeenandstill 26
isoneofthemaintoolstodefine,rationaliseandpractisecolonialism.Language expressedaswords,statements,concepts,objectives,studentexercises,summaries, andconclusionsworksasacolonialtool,buildingthegrandnarrative ofEuro

Canadianhistory.Exposinghowthetools

ofcolonialismfunctionwithinthe guidesprovidesthegroundworkforacounternarrative,becauseitchallengesand "disrupts"theassumptionthatcolonialismisachapterinthehistory ofCanadathat haslongsincepassed.

2.2HistoryasaVehicleforColonialism

AsdiscussedinChapterIhistoryisadiscourse,agrandnarrative,which hasasitspurposemorethentherecounting ofpastfacts,eventsandstories.The history oftheWestisEuro-Centricandthereforenotonlysupportsthestoryof Europeancivilisation,butcontinuestobuildit,becausethehistoryisnotan independentaccount ofthatcivilisationbutisinfactpartofit(Adams,2000).So

WesternhistorywhichCanadianhistoryispart

ofcannotescapethispattern asSmithindicateshistoryisnotaninnocentdisciplinewhich"simply" allows"thefactstospeakforthemselves"(Smith,1999,p.31).Thisidea oftruthis alsosupported byJenkinswhostatesthat"Historyisadiscourse,alanguagegame; withinit'truth'andsimilarexpressionsaredevicestoopen,regulateandshutdown interpretations"(Jenkins,1991, p.32).Therefore,historyalongwithwordssuchas imperialism,writingandtheorybrings"attentiontothethousands ofwaysinwhich indigenouslanguages,knowledgesandcultureshavebeensilencedor misrepresented,ridiculedorcondemnedinacademicandpopulardiscourses" (Smith,1999,p.20).SmithquestionswhetherWesternhistoryevenhasthe 27
capabilitytoreversethisprocess.Althoughsomemaysupporttheideathathistory isabout"truth"and ')ustice"andthereforethedamagedonetoAboriginalpeoples andtheircultureswill berepairedwhenatrueversionofhistoryismade,Smith arguesthatthiswillnothappenbecausehistoryisnotaboutjustice,butabout power: "Itisthestoryofthepowerfulandhowtheybecamepowerful,andthen howtheyusetheirpowertokeeptheminpositionsinwhichtheycancontinueto dominateothers"(Smith,1999,p.34).AndbecauseAboriginalpeoplesarestill marginalized bythatsystemofrepresentation,a"thousandaccountsofthetruth" willnotchangetheirpositionintheWesternhierarchy ofknowledge(Smith,1999, p.34). JoyceGreenprovidesanexampleofhowideasandlanguageare manipulatedtoavoidacknowledgingthehistory ofcolonialismandwhatthat meansincontemporaryCanada.Shestates"Canadahasestablishedracist, exploitativeandcoercivecolonialrelationships ...[that]...areperpetuatedbya mythologizedhistory ...n(Green,1995,p.2).Shespecificallyfocusesonhowthis "mythologizedhistory"alongwiththelegalandpoliticalstructures ofthedominant Euro-Canadiancultureservetoreinforce,justifyandlegitimisesuchthingsasthe colonial"landtheft"whichoccurredinCanada.Colonialisminthisinstance functionsnot justinthephysicalmanifestationsoftreaties,reserves,unresolved landclaims,andthecenturiesoldhistory ofthedisplacementofentirepopulations, butmostimportantlyinperpetuating,withintheminds ofmanyCanadians,the denial ofCanada'sresponsibilityforthis(Green,1995).Withoutthis acknowledgementGreenbelievesthatreal progresswillbehinderedandan 28
"insurmountabledividebetween"the"coloniserandcolonised"willbemaintained, andinthecase oflandrightsit"preventsscholarsandlegislaturesfromgrappling withtheconsequences ofthatinitialrelationship"(Green,1995,pp.4&7).This analysiscan beextended,asGreenindicates,toallaspectsofCanada'spast, presentandfuturerelationshipwithAboriginalpeople.

Theobscuredreality

ofCanada'scolonialfoundationcontributestoa contemporaryCanadianpsychosisaswestruggletoaccountforanddeal withtheconsequences ofthatsamecolonialismwhilegenerallydenYingits reality.Thisillnessisevident intherepetitionofhistoricalaccountsthatare partialandexclusionary;inthecarefullymaintainedincomprehensionat indigenousnations'resistancetoassimilationandstruggleforself determination;inpoliciesthatpurporttorespondtoindigenousproblems whilefailingtoconceptualisetherole ofsettlerpopulationsincreatingor solvingthoseproblems,Noreconciliationwillgrowfromsuchdishonest andpartialremedies.(Green,1995,p.7) Irefertothisexamplebecausethecurriculumandactivityguidesareexamples of theproblemGreenidentifies.Theguidesarenotonlypartofthecolonial phenomenon,whichGreenspeaksof,butalsocontributetoit byignoringthe connectionbetweenthe colonialactions ofthepastandtheirimmediateand contemporaryimplications.

Themanipulationandrationalising

ofhistoricalinterpretationbeginsonthe firstpages ofthecurriculumguideandcontinuesbydevelopingthemesorconcepts thatservetominimisetheimpact ofcolonialism.Intheexampleprovidedbelow thecurriculumguideshiftsresponsibilityforcolonialismawayfromEuro- Canadianssettlers.Thisoccursnotonlyinreferencetothepresent,butalsoin descriptionsandanalysesdealingwiththeearliestperiods ofEuropeancontact.On thefirstpage ofthecurriculumguide,theUnitOverviewidentifiesthreegroupsof peoplewhointeractedtocreateCanada:"FirstNations,Europeancolonisers,and 29
thepeoplesresidinginthecolonies"(SaskatchewanEducation,1997b,p.103).

Eventhoughthisstatementappearsto

beastraightforwarditneverthelessoperates ascolonialtool byrationalisationtheEuro-Canadian righttocolonise. DistinctionsmadebetweenthoseEuropeanswhocolonisetheAmericas andliveinEuropeandthosewhocolonisebutresideinthecoloniesissignificant. ThisstatementsaysthatonceaEuropeanand,ortheirdescendantsbecomesa residentinthecolonytheyarenolongeroperatingascolonisers,andthereforethe

Euro-Canadian"settler"becomesabsolved

ofthesinsofthecoloniser.The separation ofthesettlerfromthecoloniseroccurseventhoughthepeopleresiding inthecoloniesandtheirdescendantscouldnothavecometoresideinthatland withoutthecolonisation ofFirstNations.Thisclassificationalsoimpliesthatthe settlersarenolongeroperatingasagents ofcolonialism,andarenotexercising powerovertheoriginalcolonisedpeoples. Thisdistinctionpavesthewayforapresentunderstanding ofCanadato existwithoutacknowledgingthecontemporarypresence ofcolonialism.Atanearly pointinthenarrativethepresence ofEuropeancolonisersbecomesanaccepted outcome byconvertingthemtosettlerswhonownotonlysharethelandwithFirst Nations,butattimes,accordingtotheguidesshareasimilarexperiences of oppression.Theresultisthattheongoingtragedyofcolonialismisdepreciated.

Instead

ofexamininghowcolonialismfunctionedandcontinuestofunctionin Canadastudentslearnthatcolonialismissomethingthatoccurredinthepastand involvedonlyexplorers,furtraders,Jesuitsandsoldiers. 30
Theassociationbetweenthecolonisedandthecoloniserwhichnegatesthe impact ofcolonisationonAboriginalpeoplebyimplyingthatthesettlerswhohave occupiedAboriginallandandarenolongercalledcolonisers,sufferthesameplight asFirstNationsoccursinseveralplaces intheguide.Inthesection"Concepts

KnowledgeObjectives"thecurriculum

guidestates:

Knowthatcolonialdecisionmakingwastheprerogative

ofthegoverning

Europeanpowerratherthaneithertheresidents

ofthecoloniesortheFirst

Nations.Decisionmakingwithinthecolonywas

alignedwiththe priorities/agendas ofthecontrollingEuropeanparties. Thosepartiesestablishedtheirauthoritywithinthecolonytoensurethat theiragendaswerefulfilled.

Theagendas

oftheFirstNationspeoplesandtheEuropeanresidentsinthe colonieswerenotapriority.(p.122).

LaterinthesameunittheFrench

ofNewFrancewhowerecolonisersarenow groupedwithFirstNationsindiscussionsconcerningBritishpolicyaftertheSeven YearsWar.Thereisalsoareferenceonpages138and204tothefactthatwomen, certainnon-Aboriginalmales,andFirstNationswerenotallowedtovoteevenafter electionreformswereestablishedinthe1830's.

Intheseexamplestheresidentsof

thecoloniesroleascolonistswereignoredasthoughtheirexperiencewithcolonial oppressionexemptsthemfrombeingaccountablefortheircontinuedexercise of colonialpowerandprivilege.Willinsky(1994)providesacontemporaryexample ofthistypeofdynamicinterplayintherefusaloftheQuebecseparatistto acknowledgethevalidity ofthesimilaraspirationsofFirstNationsresidingin

Quebec.

Theinterplay

ofwordscontinuesinotherpartsofthecurriculumguide.The firstpart ofUnitOnedoesacknowledgethedestructiveand"catastrophic"impact 31
ofcolonialismonFirstNations(p.110)butatthesametimechoosesother words toprovideajustificationforcolonialism.Onthesamepagethatdiscussesthe catastrophicnature ofcolonialismthecurriculumguidestatesthat,"Itwas necessarytofindnewsources ofvaluableresourcesandnewmarketsforthe expanding[European]manufacturingsector"(p.110).Thisthemeisrepeatedin severalotherparts ofboththecurriculumandactivityguides.Thekeyquestionis whoorwhathasdecidedthatcolonisationwasnecessary?Whatdoestheword necessaryimplyandhowdoesitfunctiontonullifythecatastrophicimpact of colonialism?Thisexampledemonstrateshowthegrandnarrativeispromoted,and therationalisationcolonialismisencodedinthelanguage oftheguides.Thechoice ofwordsgivestheeventdescribed,inthiscasethesearchfornewmarkets,asense ofinevitability.Fromthestudentsperspectivethemessagetoldisthatcolonialism hadsomebadaspects,butitcouldnothavebeenavoided,andthereforeits catastrophicimpactonAboriginalpeoples,cultureandhistoryisanacceptable outcome ofhistoricalforces.

Theuse

ofwordstoencodeorrationaliseCanada'scolonialpastoccursin otherparts oftheguides.InthebeginningofUnitTwo,"TheNineteenthCentury: TheRoadtoDemocracy,"studentsquicklylearnthattheimplementation ofthe

NationalPolicycreated

"acompellingneedtosecuretheWest"(p.,234),butwhat isnotdiscussediswhatsecuringtheWestmeantforAboriginalpeople?Whowas itnecessarytosecuretheWestfromandwhatdoesthewordsecuresuggest?Does thismeanthatbeforethepurchase ofRupert'sLandtheWestwasnotsecure? FromtimeimmemorialAboriginalpeopleslivedinthe"west"withsystems of 32
governmentandsocietalcustoms.Isthecurriculumguidesuggestingthattheirlife asitwasknownlackedasense ofsecurity?Becausethisissueisnotdiscussed, studentsarelefttomaketheirownconclusions.Whatmightthoseconclusionsor assumptionsbe?Whatdonon-Aboriginalstudentsconcludefromthisdiscussion, andequallysignificant,what doAboriginalstudentlearnaboutthevalueoftheir civilisation?Istheguidetellingstudentsthataccordingtosomeunspokenstandard ithasbeendeterminedthatAboriginalcivilisationwasnotcapable ofgoverning thelanditpossessed? Inthisway,thediscourseofCanadianhistorycontinuesto separatethecoloniserandthecolonised?

Thepower

ofcoloniallanguagecontinuesunabatedasstudentsarealso informedthat"securingtheWest"(p.234) required"anumberoftasks"(p.236).

Thenature

ofthese"tasks"isexplainedlatterintheunit.Oneofthesetasks involvedthedispossession ofAboriginallandthroughtreatieswhichisjustified becausethe"sparselypopulated"(p.238)areahadto besettledwithEuro Canadianssothatthe"vastregionwouldnotbelosttotheAmericans"(p.238). Therefore,althoughstudentslearnthatCanada'snewpossessioncouldhavebeen losttotheAmericans,thedispossession oflandheldsincetimeimmemorialbythe FirstNationsisonlyatask,orasindicatedonthenextpage "astrategytoreduce obstaclescreated bythepopulationsresidingintheregion"(p.239).Furtherinthe guidethisisreferredtoasan"arrangement"(p.244). Part ofthese"arrangements"involvedbuildingatranscontinentalrailway andestablishingtheNorthWestMountedPolice.Thelanguageusedinthispart of curriculumguidenaturalisesandnormalisesEuro-Canadiandominance.For 33
examplethestudentsaretoldthatthetransportationofCanadiantroopsduringthe NorthWest"Rebellion"resultedinCanadianssupportingthebuildingand completion ofthetranscontinentalrailwaybecausetheycouldappreciateits "value"(244).However,aswiththeexample oftheAmericanthreat,whatisleft out oftheequationisthatthe"value"oftherailwaymeansthatEuro-Canadians could"secure"thedispossession ofFirstNationandAboriginalLandbyforceif necessary.ThejustificationgivenforthepresenceoftheNorthWestMounted Policefurtherdemonstrateshowlanguageandlogiccanbeusedtorationalisethe exercise ofcolonialpower.ThelogicwhichIamreferringtopresentstheargument thatcolonisationcreatesaproblemandthensolves itbyexercisingmorecolonial power,butdoesnotacknowledgethatateitherend oftheequation,colonisation causedtheprobleminthefirstplace.TheguidestatesthattheNorthWestMounted

Policewereneededtosolvetheproblem

oftheAmericanwhiskeytradersas thoughthesetraderswereaseparateordifferententityfromthecolonialpractices thathadbeenoccurringinCanadasincethetime ofCabot.Sointhisexamplethe NorthWestMountedPolice"restorelawandorder"(p.244)toasituationcreated bycolonialactions,andyetwerethemselvesagentsofcolonialismwhose establishment of"lawandorder"resultedinthedispossessionofAboriginalland andaloss ofpowerandrightsforAboriginalpeople.

Thelanguage

ofcolonialismcontinuesintheotherunitsaswell,thoughin theseunitsthediscourse ofcolonialismfunctionsbynotbeingnamed.Inlarge parts ofUnitsThreeandFourAboriginalpeoplesdisappearfromthestory altogetherandtheoutwardrole ofcolonialismisallbutforgotten.Significantly, 34
thewordCanadianhasbydefaultcometomeanorincludeAboriginalpeople becausetheyarenolongermentionedinmostparts oftheseunits.Thisomission meansthattheimpactandongoingpresence ofcoloniallanguage,andpracticeis hardertodetect,andasaresultteachersandstudentscouldacceptthisversion of historyandleavecolonialismoutofthediscussionontheassumptionthat

Aboriginalpeopleshavebecomefullmembers

ofthebodypolitic.Butwhatdoes thismeanforstudents?

IfdiscussionsaroundhumanrightswithinCanadaand

aroundtheworlddonotinvolveCanada'songoinghistory ofcolonialismthenthe guidesareonceagaintellingstudentsthatcolonialismisaphenomenonthatexisted inthepastandhasnorelationtocontemporaryconflictsandstruggles.Toidentify howcolonialismfunctionsasan unspokenforceinareas ofCanadianhistory usuallynotassociatedwithcolonialismisthepurpose ofapost-colonialanalysis.

Forexample,Canada'swaryearsarecovered

intheguidewithno referencetocolonialism,andyetapostcolonialanalysiscandemonstratehow colonialismisnormalisedandnaturalisedinahistoricalcategorynottraditionally associatedwithcolonialism inCanada.Inadiscussionabouttheextrapowersthe federalgovernmentassumedduringtheFirstWorldWarone oftheexercisesasks studentstotakeintoaccounttherole oftheconstitutioninprotectingtherightsof Canadians.Studentsareto,"Notethateveninademocracytherearecertain circumstances inwhichitisdeemednecessarytolimitthefreedomsandrightsof thecitizenry"(SaskatchewanEducation,1997a,p.3-18).Studentsaregiventhe opportunitytodiscusswhethersuchactions bythegovernmentareacceptable whenthereisan"nationalemergency"orathreattothe"well-being ofthenation" 35
andthentodevelopasetofcriteriontodetermineifthoseactionsarejustified(p.

3-18).Whatismissing

inthisassignmentisrecognitionoftheactionsofthefederal government ofCanadatotheFirstNationsascontainedwithintheIndianAct whichhad in1876restrictedtherightsofallFirstNationsinCanada.TheIndian ActanditsamendmentsdictatedhowFirstNationscouldgovernthemselves, prohibitedtravel offreserves,"expropriated[reserveland]withoutsurrender" (Dickason,2002,p.303),andin1914earlieramendmentsagainsttraditional culturalandreligiousceremonieswere"strengthenedwiththeprohibitionsagainst Amerindians[FirstNations]appearinginAboriginalgarb"(Dickason,2002,p.

308).Whatdoes thissayaboutthetreatment

ofFirstNations?Theactivityguide failstoacknowledgeseveralthings.Thedenial ofAboriginalpeoplesrights,which wereongoing,werebased onwhatthreat?Orarewenotdealingwiththefactthat therewasnothreat,butonlyaracistpolicy?Becausethesequestionsarenotbeing asked ineitherguidestudentsarelefttoassumeoneoftwothings.Firsttheycould assumethatAboriginalpeoplewereathreat,andthereforewereeitherenemies of thenationor,second,andmorelikely,thisdiscussiondoesnotpertainto

Aboriginalpeople,andthereforetheirloss

ofrights,whichwasnotrelatedtothe war,stemmedfromsomeothersources.Whatthatothersourcewasgoes unchallengedbecausethisquestionisnotevenasked.Theendresultisthat studentswill bydefaultaccepttheoutcomeofcolonialismasthoughtheplightof AboriginalpeopleatthattimeinCanadawasnormalandnatural.

Otherexamples

ofthisomissionoccurinthecurriculumguide.Studentsare asked,forexample,to"discusshowtheactions offoreignnationscaninfluencethe 36
livesofordinaryCanadians"(p.315).Theseexercisesandstatementsprompt studentstoexaminetheimpact ofthecomingWorIdWarsonCanada,andhow thosewarschangedCanada'srelationshipwiththeUnitedKingdomandtheUnited

States.Teachersaretogivehistoricalexamples

"ofhowothernationsand internationalevents/conditionscanaffectthelives ofCanadians"(p.315).The suggestedexamplesincludetheWar of1812andthecancellationoftheCom Laws,buttheexperienceofAboriginalpeopleswithforeignpowers,thosebeing European,isnevermentioned.Thisomissionisironicbecausetheexperiences of AboriginalpeopleswithEuropeanpowersandtheCanadiangovernmentcould providemanyexamples ofhowsovereignnationshavehadtodealwithforeign powers. AnironicexampleofthissituationcanbefoundinasectionofUnitThree dealingwithCanada'sresponsetoGermanaggressioninthe1930's.Theguide recommendsthatteachersshould"Discusseswithstudentstheresponse ofnations whosefundamentalvaluesaredemocraticandbased ontheruleoflaw,andwho seektomaintainapeacefulforeignpolicyintheface ofanaggressiveforeign policy byanothernation"(p.351).YetinUnitOnethecurriculumguide establishedthattheIroquoisconfederacywasademocraticnationthatwas governed bytheruleoflaw.Sowhywhenconsideringthisissue,dostudentsand teachersnotlookathowtheIroquois, orotherFirstNations,respondedtothe aggressiveforeignpowers ofEnglandandFrance?Bynotshowingtheconnection betweentheseeventsandthecolonialismthatwasstillfunctioningatthetimethese eventsweretakingplacetheguidebuildsa grandnarrativethatdismisses 37
colonialismtoadistantirrelevantpastthatnolongerpertainstothetwentieth-first century.AsaresultthisomissionleavesAboriginalstudentswithgapsinthe history oftheircollectiveexperienceandconfirmsfortheEuro-Canadianstudents thatcolonialismplayed,perhapsasignificantroleatonetimeinCanada'shistory, butthattimeislongpassed.

2.3RankingandClassifying

Intheabovesectionthepost-colonialanalysisdemonstratedhowevents anddevelopmentsinCanadianhistorywhichempoweredEuro-Canadianswas madetoseemnaturalandnormalbyrationalisingtherole ofcolonialismoutofthe story.Thissectiondealswithhowthelanguage oftheguideteachesandreconfirms

Euro-Canadiandominance

byassumingthattheEuro-CanadianorWesternculture is,andwas,astandardbywhichotherpeoplesandcivilisationsaremeasuredand evaluated. AccordingtopostcolonialauthorLindaTuhiwaiSmith,Westernhistoryas vehicleforcolonialismisadiscursivepractice ofpowerwhichmarginalizesand "others"entirecultures(Smith,1999).Fromtheperspective ofthosewhohave sufferedthroughcolonisation,"theWest"whichWesternhistoryisacomponent "isanideaorconcept,alanguageforimaginingaset ofcomplexstories,ideas, historicaleventsandsocialrelationships"(Smith,1999,p.42)whichhasthepower toclassify,categorise,evaluate,andrankallknowledge,culturesandcivilisations (Smith,1999,pp.42-45).TheWestexercisesitspowerasthestandardtomeasure othercultures,andthoseculturesorpeopleswhodonothavesimilarattributes as theWestarethereforeassumedtobesubstandard.InhisanalysisofWestern 38
history'sroleinAfrica,StevenFeiermandescribesaconditionthatappliesto

Canadianhistory."Theproblemhereisthatcategories

ofhistoricalanalysis,even thoughostensiblyvalue-neutral,aredrawnfromEurope,andthereforethehistorian looksinAfrica[orCanada]forafamiliarconstellation ofkings,nobles,churchand merchants.. .IfwhatisEuropeanisdefinedasnormal,thenthenon-European appearstobedisordered,abnormal,primitive ...Thecategoriesthatareostensibly universalareinfactparticular,andtheyrefertotheexperience ofmodemEurope" (FeiermancitedinWilson,1999,p.135).Theresults ofthispracticeisthat

Westernhistoryisfull

ofevaluationsandrankingsastowhichcultureiscivilised andnotcivilised,advancedorprimitive,andthereforeoneculturebecomesthe winnerwhileanotheristheloser(Willinsky,1998).TheHistory30Guideattempts toavoidthistype oflanguageandanalysis,butitcannot.

Thedominantpositioning

oftheEuro-Canadiancultureandhistoryis "encoded"withinthelanguage oftheguides,suggestingmeaningswhicharenot readilyapparentandyetservetonormaliseandnatural