Around 3100 B C , Egypt's two major kingdoms, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, were combined into one • Egyptian society was divided
The presentation is divided into the 8 Ancient Egypt developed along a 750-mile stretch of the Nile archeological find, dating from about the 31st
yet his dynasties divide the kings into convenient groups, which have so long been employed in modern study of Egyptian history, that it is now impossible
Because Egyptian history lasted so long, Egyptologists divide it into three periods called Kingdoms: (1) The Old Kingdom saw the beginnings of nationhood for
Thousands of years ago, ancient Egyptians lived along the Nile River Egypt was once divided into two regions: Upper and Lower Egypt
where learning modules can be organized Maxwell Museum of Anthropology Ancient Civilizations: Egypt 4 homework Divide the class into groups of
9706_5AhistoryoftheancientEgyptians.pdf
C&eIjMstoricalSeriesfoeTBfble^tuDcnts
PBOFBSSOECHARLESF.KENT,PH.D.,ofYaleUni
RFRANKK.SANDERS,PH.D.,formerlyof
YaleUniversity
Volumev
AHISTORY
ANCIENTEGYPTIANS
CftehistoricalSeriesforTSibltStudents
Italsorefersfreelytothebiblicalandmonumentalsources,andlothestandardaulhoii-
VOLS.I.HISTORYOFTHEHEBREWPEOPLE.
1.TheUnitedKingdom.Sixthedi-CHARLESF.KENT,Ph.D.,Professorof
2.The^D'ivldedKingdom.Sixthedi-B'bhCa'LlteratUrC'
II.HISTORYOFTHEJEWISHPEOPLE.
3.TheBabylonian,Persian,andGreekCHARLESF.KENT,Ph.D.,Professorof
III.CONTEMPORARYOLDTESTAMENTHISTORY.
IV.NEWTESTAMENTHISTORIES.
7.TheLifeofJesus.RUSHRHFFS,PresidentnftheUniversity
8.TheApostolicAge.GEOBnE
C
T."'URVES,Ph.D.,D.D..late
and C lxegesis, C1 pruKetSLTheological
V.OUTLINESFORTHESTUDYOFBIBLICAL
HISTORYANDLITERATURE.
9.FromEarliestTimesto200A.D.FRANKK.SANDERS,Ph.D.,Professorof
AHISTORY
THEANCIENTEGYPTIANS
JAMESHENRYBREASTED,Pn.I).
WITHFOURMAPSANDTIIR%PLANS
NEWYORK
CHARLESSCRIBNER'SSONS
MYFATHER
INREVERENCEANDGKA
PREFACE
AsworksontheearlyOrientmultiply,itbecomes
moreandmoreeasytoproducesuchbooksatsecond andthirdhand,whicharethusseparatedbyalong primarysourcesofknowledge.Astheuseofthisvol- umeisinameasureconditionedbythemethodwhich producedit,maytheauthorstatethatitisbaseddi- rectlyandimmediatelyuponthemonuments,andin mostcasesupontheoriginalmonuments,ratherthan uponanypublishededitionofthesame?Forthispur- posethehistoricalmonumentsstillstandinginEgypt, orinstalledinthemuseumsofEurope(thelatterinto- to),werecopiedorcollatedbytheauthoranewadhoc andrenderedintoEnglish(seeinfra,p.445,B.Trans- lations,BAR).Uponthiscompleteversionthepresent volumerests.Thosestudentswhodesiretoconsult thesourcesuponwhichanygivenfactisbased,arere- ferredtothisEnglishcorpus.Afullbibliographyof eachoriginalmonument,ifdesired,willalsobefound there,andhencenoreferencestosuchtechnicalbibliog- raphywillbefoundherein,thusfreeingthereader fromamassofworkshopdebris,towhich,however, hecaneasilyrefer,ifhedesiresit.
Whilethisvolumeislargelyacondensationand
abridgementoftheauthor'slongerhistory,hehasen- deavouredtoconformittothedesignofthishistorical seriesandtomakeitasfaraspossibleahistoryofthe
Egyptianpeople.Atthesametimetheremarkable
recentdiscoveriesandtheprogressofresearchmade sincetheappearanceofhislargerhistoryhavebeen fullyincorporated.ThediscoveryoftheHittitecapital recordsofthisremarkablepeople,andelsewherethe evidencethattheyconqueredBabyloniatemporarilyin theeighteenthcenturyB.c.,formthemostremarkable ofthenewfactsrecentlyrecovered.*Thenew-found evidencethatthefirstandthirddynastiesofBabylon werecontemporaneouswiththesecond,hasalsosettled theproblem,whetherthecivilizationoftheNileorofthe
Euphratesisolder,infavourofEgypt,wheretheforma-
tionofahomogeneous,unitedstate,embracingthe wholecountryunderthesuccessivedynasties,isovera thousandyearsolderthaninBabylonia.Wepossessno monumentofBabylonia,asEduardMeyerrecently remarkedtotheauthor,olderthan3000B.c.The author'sjourneythroughSudaneseNubiaduringthe winterof1906-07clearedhismindofanumberofmis- conceptionsofthatcountry,especiallyeconomically, whileitalsorecoveredthelostcityofGem-Aton,and disposedoftheimpossiblethoughcurrentviewthatthe
Egyptianconquestwasextendedsouthwardimmedi-
atelyafterthefalloftheMiddleKingdom.Thosefa- miliarwiththeotherhistorywillalsowelcometheim- provedmapsredrawnforthisvolume.
Onthenever-settledquestionofapronounceable,
*ThisbookwaspagedinOctober,1907,butastheproofwas unhappilylostforthreemonthsintransporttoEurope,there- sultsofthesecondcampaign(summerof1907)atBoghaz-Kbi,whichappearedinDecember,1907,couldnotbeemployedin detailastheymightotherwisehavebeen. thatisvocalized,formofEgyptianpropernames, whicharewritteninhieroglyphicwithoutvowels,Imust referthereadertotheremarksintheprefaceofmyAn- cientRecords(Vol.I.,pp.xiv.fi.).Itishopedthatthe indexhasmadethempronounceable.Astotheau- thor'sindebtednesstoothersinthepreparationofthis volume,hemayalsorefertohisacknowledgmentsin thesamepreface,aswellasinthatofhislargerhistory acknowledgmentswhichareequallytrueofthis brieferwork.Hewouldalsoexpresshisappreciation ofthepatienceshownhimbybotheditorandpub- lisher,whohavewaitedlongforthemanuscriptofthis book,delayedasithasbeenbydistanttravelsand heavytasks,andthefactthatthemassofthematerial collectedprovedtoolargetocondenseatonceintothis volume,thusresultingintheproductionofthelarger historyfirst.Evenso,thepresentvolumeislargerthan itsfellowsintheseries,andtheauthorgreatlyappre- ciatestheindulgenceofthepublishersinthisrespect. Inconclusion,tothestudentoftheOldTestament,bywhomitwillbechieflyused,theauthorwouldexpress thehopethatthelittlebookmaycontributesomewhat towardawiderrecognitionofthefact,thattheriseand development,thecultureandcareer,oftheHebrew nationwereasvitallyconditionedandasdeeplyinflu- encedbysurroundingcivilizations,asmodernhistorical sciencehasshowntobethefactwitheveryotherpeo- ple,ancientormodern.
JAMESHENRYBREASTED.
BORDIQHERA,ITALY,March2,1908.
CONTENTS
PARTI
INTRODUCTION
I.THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS.
II.PRELIMINARYSURVEY,CHRONOLOG
III.EARLIESTEGYPT
PARTII
THEOLDKINGDOM
IV.EARLYRELIGION
V.THEOLDKINGDOM:GOVERNMENT,
VI.THEPYRAMIDBUILDERS...
VII.THESIXTHDYNASTY:THEDECLINI
KINGDOM
PARTIII
THEMIDDLEKINGDOM:THEFEUDALAGE
VIII.THEDECLINEOFTHENORTHANDTHERISEOF
THEBES:
IX.THEMIDDLEKINGDOMORTHEFEUDALAGE
STATE,SOCIETYANDRELIGION....
X.THETWELFTHDYNASTY
iiCONTENTS
PARTIV
THEHYKSOS:THERISEOFTHEEMPIRE
XI.THEFALLOFTHEMIDDLEKINGDOM.THE
XII.THEEXPULSIONOFTHEHYKSOS
UMPHOFTHEBES....
PARTV
THEEMPIRE:FIRSTPERIOD
XIII.THENEWSTATE:SOCIETYANDRELIGION
XIV.THECONSOLIDATIONOFTHEKINGDO
XV.THEFEUDOFTHETHUTM
OFQUEENHATSHEPS
XVI.THECONSOLIDATIONOF11
OFTHUTMOSEin..
XVII.THEEMPIREATITSHEI
XVIII.THERELIGIOUSREVOLUT:
XIX.THEFALLOFIKHNATON
OFTHEEMPIRE.
PARTVI
THEEMPIRE:SECONDPERIOD
XX.THETRIUMPHOFAMONANDTHEREORGANIZA-
TIONOFTHEEMPIRE2
XXI.THEWARSOFRAMSESII3
XXII.THEEMPJREOFRAMSESII3
XXIII.THEFINALDECLINEOFTHEEMPIRE:MERNEP-
TAHANDRAMSESIII3
CONTENTSxiii
PARTVII
THEDECADENCEOFANCIENTEGYPT
XXIV.THEFALLOPTHEEMPIRE347
XXV.PRIESTSANDMERCENARIES:THESUPREMACYOF
THELIBYANS357
XXVI.THEETHIOPIANSUPREMACYANDTHETRIUMPH
OFASSYRIA367
PARTVIII
THERESTORATIONANDTHEEND
XXVII.THERESTORATION387
XXVIII.THEFINALSTRUGGLES:BABYLONANDPERSIA404
CHRONOLOGICALSUMMARY419
ASELECTEDBIB
INDEXOFNAM;
MAPSANDPLANS
MAPI.EGYPTANI
MAPII.THEASIA
MAPIII.THEBESA
PLANIV.THETEMI
THEBATTLEOFKADESH,SECONDSTAC
MAPV.GENERALMAPOFEGYPTA
PARTI
INTRODUCTION
THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS
1.THErootsofmoderncivilizationare
deeplyinthehighlyelaboratelifeofthosenations whichroseintopoweroversixthousandyearsago,in thebasinofthe(easternMediterranean,andthead- jacentregionsontheeastofit.HadtheEuphrates finallyfounditswayintotheMediterranean,toward which,indeed,itseemstohavestarted,boththeearly civilizations,towhichwerefer,mightthenhavebeen includedintheMediterraneanbasin.Asitis,the sceneofearlyorientalhistorydoesnotfallentirely withinthatbasin,butmustbedesignatedastheeast- ernMediterraneanregion.Itliesinthemidstofthe vastdesertplateau,which,beginningattheAtlantic, extendseastwardacrosstheentirenorthernendof
Africa,andcontinuingbeyondthedepressionofthe
RedSea,passesnortheastward,withsomeinterrup-
tions,farintotheheartofAsia.Approachingit,the onefromthesouthandtheotherfromthenorth,two greatrivervalleystraversethisdesert;inAsia,the
Tigro-Euphratesvalley;inAfricathatoftheNile.It
isinthesetwovalleysthatthecareerofmanmaybe tracedfromtheriseofEuropeancivilizationbacktoa remoteragethananywhereelseonearth;anditis fromthesetwocradlesofthehumanracethatthein- fluenceswhichemanatedfromtheirhighlydeveloped
4INTRODUCTION
butdifferingcultures,cannowbemoreandmore clearlytracedaswediscernthemconverginguponthe earlycivilizationofAsiaMinorandsouthernEurope.
2.TheNile,whichcreatedthevalleyhomeofthe
earlyEgyptians,risesthreedegreessouthoftheequa- tor,andflowingintotheMediterraneanatoverthirty- oneandahalfdegreesnorthlatitude,itattainsalength ofsomefourthousandmilesandvieswiththegreatest riversoftheworldinlength,ifnotinvolume.Inits uppercoursetheriver,emergingfromthelakesof equatorialAfrica,isknownastheWhiteNile.Just southofnorthlatitudesixteenatKhartum,about thirteenhundredandfiftymilesfromthesea,itre- ceivesfromtheeastanaffluentknownastheBlue
Nile,whichisaconsiderablemountaintorrent,rising
intheloftyhighlandsofAbyssinia.Onehundredand fortymilesbelowtheunionofthetwoNilesthestream isjoinedbyitsonlyothertributary,theAtbara,which isafreshetnotunliketheBlueNile.ItisatKhar- tum,orjustbelowit,thattheriverentersthetable- landofNubiansandstone,underlyingtheGreatSa- hara.Hereitwindsonitstortuouscoursebetween thedeserthills,whereitreturnsuponitself,often flowingduesouth,untilafterithasfinallypushed throughtothenorth,itscoursedescribesavastS.
3.Insixdifferentplacesthroughoutthisregionthe
currenthashithertofailedtoerodeaperfectchannel throughthestubbornstone,andtheseextendedinter- ruptions,wheretherocksarepiledinscatteredand irregularmassesinthestream,areknownasthecata- ractsoftheNile;althoughthereisnogreatandsud- denfallsuchasthatofourcataractatNiagara.These rocksinterferewithnavigationmostseriouslyinthe regionofthesecondandfourthcataracts;otherwise
THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS5
theriverisnavigablealmostthroughoutitsentire course.AtElephantineitpassesthegranitebarrier whichtherethrustsupitsroughshoulder,formingthe firstcataract,andthenceemergesuponanunob- structedcoursetothesea.
4.Itisthevalleybelowthefirstcataractwhichcon-
stitutedEgyptproper.Thereasonforthechange whichheregivestheriverafreecourseisthedisap- pearanceofthesandstone,sixty-eightmilesbelowthe cataract,atEdfu,wherethenummuliticlimestone whichformsthenortherndesertplateau,offersthe streamaneasiertaskintheerosionofitsbed.Ithas thusproducedavastcanonortrenchcutacrossthe easternendoftheSaharatothenorthernsea.From clifftocliff,thevalleyvariesinwidth,fromtenor twelve,tosomethirty-onemiles.Thefloorofthe canoniscoveredwithblack,alluvialdeposits,through whichtheriverwindsnorthward.Itcutsadeep channelthroughthealluvium,flowingwithaspeedof aboutthreemilesanhour;inwidthitonlytwiceat- tainsamaximumofelevenhundredyards.Onthe westtheBahrYusufasecond,minorchannelsome twohundredmileslong,leavesthemainstreamnear
SiutandflowsintotheFayum.Inantiquityitflowed
thenceintoacanalknownasthe"North,"which passednorthwardwestofMemphisandreachedthe seabythesiteoflaterAlexandria(BAR,iv224,1.8, note).Alittleoverahundredmilesfromtheseathe mainstreamentersthebroadtriangle,withapexat thesouth,whichtheGreekssographicallycalledthe "Delta."Thisisofcourseabayofprehistoricages, whichhasbeengraduallyfilledupbytheriver.The streamoncedividedatthispointandreachedthesea throughsevenmouths,butinmoderntimesthereare
6INTRODUCTION
buttwomainbranches,stragglingthroughtheDelta andpiercingthecoast-lineoneithersideofthemid- dle.ThewesternbranchiscalledtheRosettamouth; theeasternthatofDamiette.
5.ThedepositswhichhaveformedtheDelta,are
verydeep,andhaveslowlyrisenoverthesitesofthe manyancientcitieswhichonceflourishedthere.The oldswampswhichoncemusthaverenderedtheregions ofthenorthernDeltaavastmorass,havebeengradu- allyfilledup,andthefringeofmarshespushedfurther out.Theyundoubtedlyoccupiedinantiquityamuch largerproportionoftheDeltathantheydonow.In thevalleyabove,thedepthofthesoilvariesfromthirty- threetothirty-eightfeet,andsometimesreachesa maximumoftenmilesinwidth.Thecultivablearea thusformed,betweenthecataractandthesea,isless thantenthousandsquaremilesinextent,beingroughly equaltotheareaofthestateofMaryland,orabout tenpercent,lessthanthatofBelgium.Thecliffson eitherhandareusuallybutafewhundredfeetin height,buthereandtheretheyriseintoalmostmoun- tainsofathousandfeet.Theyareofcourseflanked bythedesertsthroughwhichtheNilehascutitsway.OnthewesttheLibyanDesertorthegreatSahara rollsinillimitable,desolatehillsofsand,graveland rock,fromsixhundredandfiftytoathousandfeet abovetheNile.Itsotherwisewaterlessexpanseis brokenonlybyanirregularlineofoases,orwatered depressions,roughlyparallelwiththeriveranddoubt- lessowingtheirspringsandwellstoinfiltrationofthe
Nilewaters.Thelargestofthesedepressionsissitua-
atedsoclosetothevalleythattherockwallwhichonce separatedthemhasbrokendown,producingthefertile
Fayum,wateredbytheBahrYusuf.Otherwisethe
THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS7
westerndesertheldnoeconomicresourcesfortheuse oftheearlyNile-dwellers.TheeasternorArabian
Desertissomewhatlessinhospitable,andcapableof
yieldingascantysubsistencetowanderingtribesof
Ababdeh.Depositsofalabasterandextensivemasses
ofvariousfine,hardigneousrocksledtotheexploita- tionofquarriesherealso,whiletheRedSeaharbours couldofcoursebereachedonlybytraversingthis desert,throughwhichestablishedroutesthitherwere earlytraced.Furthernorthsimilarmineralresources ledtoanacquaintancewiththepeninsulaofSinaiand itsdesertregions,ataveryremotedate.
6.Thesituationaffordedbythisnarrowvalleywas
oneofunusualisolation;oneitherhandvastdesert wastes,onthenorththeharbourlesscoast-lineofthe
Delta,andonthesouththerockybarriersofsuccessive
cataracts,preventingfusionwiththepeoplesofinner
Africa.Itwaschieflyatthetwonortherncornersof
theDelta,thatoutsideinfluencesandforeignelements whichwerealwayssiftingintotheNilevalley,gained accesstothecountry.Throughtheeasterncornerit wastheprehistoricSemiticpopulationofneighbouring
Asia,whoforcedtheirwayinacrossthedangerous
interveningdeserts;whiletheLibyanraces,ofpossi- blyEuropeanorigin,foundentranceatthewestern corner.Theproductsofthesouthalso,inspiteof thecataracts,filteredineverincreasingvolumeinto theregionsofthelowerriverandthelowerendofthe firstcataractbecameatradingpost,everafterknown as"Suan"(Assuan)or"market,"wherethenegro tradersofthesouthmetthoseofEgypt.Theupper
Nilethusgraduallybecamearegularavenueofcom-
mercewiththeSudan.Thenaturalboundariesof Egypt,however,alwayspresentedsufficientlyeffective
8INTRODUCTION
barrierstowould-beinvaders,toenablethenatives slowlytoassimilatethenewcomers,withoutbeing displaced.
7.Itwillbeevidentthattheremarkableshapeof
thecountrymustpowerfullyinfluenceitspoliticalde- velopment.ExceptintheDeltaitwasbutanarrow line,somesevenhundredandfiftymileslong.Strag- glingitsslenderlengthalongtheriver,andsprawling outintotheDelta,ittotallylackedthecompactness necessarytostablepoliticalorganization.Agiven localityhasneighboursononlytwosides,northand south,andthesetheirshortestboundaries;localfeeling wasstrong,localdifferenceswerepersistent,anda manoftheDeltacouldhardlyunderstandthespeech ofamanofthefirstcataractregion.Itwasonlythe easeofcommunicationaffordedbytheriverwhichin anydegreeneutralizedtheeffectofthecountry'sre- markablelength.
8.Thewealthofcommercewhichtheriverserved
tocarry,itwasequallyinstrumentalinproducing.
Whiletheclimateofthecountryisnotrainless,yetthe
rareshowersofthesouth,oftenseparatedbyintervals ofyears,andeventhemorefrequentrainsoftheDelta, aretotallyinsufficienttomaintaintheprocessesof agriculture.ThemarvellousproductivityoftheEgyp- tiansoilisduetotheannualinundationoftheriver, whichiscausedbythemeltingofthesnows,andbythe springrainsatthesourcesoftheBlueNile.Freighted withtherichloamoftheAbyssinianhighlands,the rushingwatersofthespringfreshethurrydownthe
Nubianvalley,andaslightriseisdiscernibleatthe
firstcataractintheearlypartofJune.Theflood swellsrapidlyandsteadily,andalthoughtheincrease isusuallyinterruptedfornearlyamonthfromtheend
THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS9
ofSeptemberon,itisusuallyresumedagain,andthe maximumlevelcontinuesuntiltheendofOctoberor intoNovember.Thewatersintheregionofthefirst cataractarethennearlyfiftyfeethigherthanatlow water;whileatCairotheriseisabouthalfthatatthe cataract.Avastandelaboratesystemofirrigation canalsandreservoirsfirstreceivestheflood,whichis thenallowedtoescapeintothefieldsasneeded.Here itrestslongenoughtodeposititsburdenofrich,black earthfromtheupperreachesoftheBlueNile.At suchtimestheappearanceofthecountryispicturesque intheextreme,theglisteningsurfaceofthewatersbeing dottedhereandtherebythevividgreenofthewaving palmgroves,whichmarkthevillages,nowaccessible onlyalongthedykesbelongingtotheirrigationsystem.
Thusyearbyyear,thesoilwhichwouldotherwisebe-
comeimpoverishedintheelementsnecessarytothe productionofsuchprodigiousharvests,isinvariably replenishedwithfreshresources.
9.Astheriversinksbelowthelevelofthefields
again,itisnecessarytoraisethewaterfromthecanals byartificialmeans,inordertocarryontheconstant irrigationofthegrowingcropsintheoutlyingfields, whicharetoohightobelongerrefreshedbyabsorption fromtheriver.Thusagenialandgenerous,butex- actingsoil,demandedforitscultivationthedevelop-mentofahighdegreeofskillinthemanipulationof thelife-givingwaters,andataveryearlydaythemen oftheNilevalleyhadattainedasurprisingcommandof thecomplicatedproblemsinvolvedintheproper utilizationoftheriver.IfEgyptbecamethemother ofthemechanicalarts,theriverwillhavebeenoneof thechiefnaturalforcestowhichthisfactwasdue.
Withsuchnaturalassetsasthese,aneverreplenisfied
10INTRODUCTION
soil,andalmostunfailingwatersforitsrefreshment, thewealthofEgyptcouldnotbutbechieflyagricul- tural,afacttowhichweshalloftenrecur.Such opulentfertilityofcoursesupportedalargepopula- tioninRomantimessomesevenmillionsouls(Dio- dorusI,31)whileinourowndayitmaintainsover ninemillion,adensityofpopulationfarsurpassing thattobefoundanywhereinEurope.Theother naturalresourcesofthevalleyweshallbebetterable totraceaswefollowtheirexploitationinthecourseof thehistoricaldevelopment.
10.InclimateEgyptisaveritableparadise,drawing
toitsshoresatthepresentdayaneverincreasing numberofwinterguests.TheairofEgyptisessen- tiallythatofthedesertswithinwhichitlies,andsuch isitspurityanddrynessthatevenanexcessivedegree ofheatoccasionsbutslightdiscomfort,owingtothe factthatthemoistureofthebodyisdriedupalmost asfastasitisexhaled.Themeantemperatureofthe
Deltainwinteris56Fahrenheitandinthevalley
aboveitistendegreeshigher.Insummerthemean intheDeltais83;andalthoughthesummertem- peratureinthevalleyissometimesashighas122,the airisfarfromtheoppressivenessaccompanyingthe samedegreeofheatinotherlands.Thenightsevenin summerarealwayscool,andthevastexpansesofvege- tationappreciablyreducethetemperature.Inwinter justbeforedawntheextremecoldissurprising,as contrastedwiththegenialwarmthofmid-dayatthe sameseason.Totheabsenceofrainwehavealready adverted.TherareshowersofupperEgyptoccur onlywhencyclonicdisturbancesinthesouthern
MediterraneanornorthernSaharaforceundischarged
cloudsintotheNilevalleyfromthewest;fromthe
THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANSU
easttheycannotreachthevalley,owingtothehigh mountainridgealongtheRedSea,whichforcesthem upwardanddischargesthem.ThelowerDelta,how- ever,fallswithinthezoneofthenorthernrainyseason.
Inspiteofthewideextentofmarshyground,leftstag-
natingbytheinundation,thedryairsofthedesert, blowingconstantlyacrossthevalley,quicklydrythe soil,andthereisneveranymalarialinfectioninupper
Egypt.EveninthevastmorassoftheDelta,malaria
ispracticallyunknown.Thus,lyingjustoutsideof thetropics,Egyptenjoyedamildclimateofunsur- passedsalubrity,devoidoftheharshnessofanorthern winter,butatthesametimesufficientlycooltoescape thoseenervatinginfluencesinherentintropicalcondi- tions.
11.Theprospectofthiscontractedvalleyspreadout
beforetheNiledweller,wasinantiquity,asitisto-day somewhatmonotonous.ThelevelNilebottoms,the giftoftheriver,cladinrichgreen,shutinoneither handbytheyellowcliffs,areunrelievedbyanyeleva- tionsorbyanyforests,savetheoccasionalgrovesof gracefulpalms,whichfringetheriverbanksorshade thevillagesofsombremudhuts,withnowandthena sycamore,atamariskoranacacia.Anetworkof irrigationcanalstraversesthecountryineverydirec- tionlikeavastarterialsystem.Thesandsofthe desolatewasteswhichliebehindthecanonwalls,drift inathwartthecliffs,andofteninvadethegreenfields sothatonemaystandwithonefootintheverdureof thevalley,andtheotherinthedesertsand.Thus sharplydefinedwastheEgyptian'sworld:adeepand narrowriver-valleyofunparalleledfertility,winding betweenlifelessdeserts,furnishingaremarkableen- vironment,nottobefoundelsewhereinalltheworld.
12INTRODUCTION
Suchsurroundingsreactedpowerfullyuponthemind
andthoughtoftheEgyptian,conditioninganddeter- mininghisideaoftheworldandhisnotionofthe mysteriouspowerswhichruledit.
12.Suchwasinbriefthesceneinwhichdeveloped
thepeopleoftheNile,whoseculturedominatedthe basinoftheeasternMediterraneanintheagewhen
Europewasemergingintothesecondarystagesof
civilization,andcomingintointimatecontactwiththe cultureoftheearlyeast.Nowhereonearthhavethe witnessesofagreat,butnowextinctcivilization,been soplentifullypreservedasalongthebanksoftheNile.
EvenintheDelta,wherethestormsofwarbeatmore
fiercelythaninthevalleyabove,andwheretheslow accumulationsfromtheyearlyfloodhavegradually entombedthem,thesplendidcitiesofthePharaohs haveleftgreatstretchescumberedwithenormous blocksofgranite,limestoneandsandstone,shattered obelisks,andmassivepylonbases,toproclaimthe wealthandpowerofforgottenages;whileanever growingmultitudeofmodernvisitorsaredrawntothe uppervalleybythecolossalruinsthatgreetthewon- deringtravelleralmostateverybendinthestream.
Nowhereelseintheancientworldweresuchmassive
stonebuildingserected,andnowhereelsehasadry atmosphere,coupledwithanalmostcompleteabsence ofrain,permittedthesurvivalofsuchawealthofthe bestandhighestinthelifeofanancientpeople,insofar asthatlifefoundexpressioninmaterialform.Inthe plenitudeofitssplendour,muchofitthussurvived intotheclassicageofEuropeancivilization,andhence itwas,thatasEgyptwasgraduallyoverpoweredand absorbedbythewesternworld,thecurrentsoflife fromwestandeastcommingledhere,astheyhave
THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS13
neverdoneelsewhere.BothintheNilevalleyand beyondit,thewestthusfeltthefullimpactofEgyptian civilizationformanycenturies,andgainedfromitall thatitsmanifoldculturehadtocontribute.Thecareer whichmadeEgyptsorichaheritageofalienpeoples, andalegacysovaluabletoalllaterages,weshall endeavourtotraceintheensuingchapters.
13.ARAPIDsurveyofthepurelyexternalfeatures
whichservetodemarkthegreatepochsinthecareerof theNilevalleypeople,willenableusthemoreintelli- gentlytostudythoseepochsindetail,aswemeetthem inthecourseofourprogress.Insuchasurvey,we sweepoureyesdownaperiodoffourthousandyears ofhumanhistory,fromatimewhentheonlyciviliza- tionknowninthebasinoftheMediterraneanisslowly dawningamongaprimitivepeopleontheshoresofthe
Nile.Wecancastbutabriefglanceattheoutward
eventswhichcharacterizedeachgreatperiod,espe- ciallynotinghowforeignpeoplesaregraduallydrawn withinthecircleofEgyptianintercoursefromageto age,andreciprocalinfluencesensue;untilinthethir- teenthcenturyB.c.thepeoplesofsouthernEurope, longdiscernibleintheirmaterialcivilization,emerge inthewrittendocumentsofEgyptforthefirsttimein history.ItwasthenthatthefortunesofthePharaohs begantodecline,andasthecivilizationandpower, firstoftheEastandthenofclassicEurope,slowly developed,Egyptwasfinallysubmergedinthegreat worldofMediterraneanpowers,firstdominatedby
Persia,andthenbyGreeceandRome.
14.ThecareeroftheraceswhichpeopledtheNile
valleyfallsintoaseriesofmoreorlessclearlymarked
PRELIMINARYSURVEY15
epochs,eachofwhichisrooteddeeplyinthatwhich precededit,anditselfcontainsthegermsofthatwhich istofollow.Amoreorlessarbitraryandartificialbut convenientsubdivisionoftheseepochs,beginningwith thehistoricage,isfurnishedbytheso-calleddynasties ofManetho.ThisnativehistorianofEgypt,apriest ofSebennytos,whoflourishedunderPtolemyI(305-
285B.c.),wroteahistoryofhiscountryintheGreek
language.Theworkhasperished,andweonlyknow itinanepitomebyJuliusAfricanusandEusebius,and extractsbyJosephus.Thevalueoftheworkwas slight,asitwasbuiltuponfolk-talesandpopular traditionsoftheearlykings.Manethodividedthe longsuccessionofPharaohs,asknowntohim,into thirtyroyalhousesordynasties,andalthoughweknow thatmanyofhisdivisionsarearbitrary,andthatthere wasmanyadynasticchangewhereheindicatesnone, yethisdynastiesdividethekingsintoconvenient groups,whichhavesolongbeenemployedinmodern studyofEgyptianhistory,thatitisnowimpossibleto dispensewiththem.
15.Afteranarchaicageofprimitivecivilization,and
aperiodofsmallandlocalkingdoms,thevariouscen- tresofcivilizationontheNilegraduallycoalescedinto twokingdoms:onecomprisingthevalleydowntothe
Delta;andtheothermadeupoftheDeltaitself.In
theDelta,civilizationrapidlyadvanced,andthecalen- daryearof365dayswasintroducedin4241B.c.,the earliestfixeddateinthehistoryoftheworldasknown tous(MC,38ff.,BAR,I,44-45).Alongdevelop- ment,asthe"TwoLands,"whichlefttheirimprint foreverafteronthecivilizationoflatercenturies,pre- cededaunitedEgypt,whichemergeduponourhis- torichorizonattheconsolidationofthetwokingdoms
16INTRODUCTION
intoonenationunderMenesabout3400B.c.His accessionmarksthebeginningofthedynasties,andthe preceding,earliestperiodmaybeconvenientlydesig- natedasthepredynasticage.Intheexcavationsof thelasttwelveyears(since1895)thepredynasticciv- ilizationhasbeengraduallyrevealedinmaterialdocu- mentsexhibitingthevariousstagesintheslowevolu- tionwhichatlastproducedthedynasticculture.
16.Auniformgovernmentofthewholecountrywas
thesecretofoverfourcenturiesofprosperityunderthe descendantsofMenesatThinis,nearAbydos,closeto thegreatbendoftheNilebelowThebes,andprobably alsoatornearlaterMemphis.Theremarkablede- velopmentofthesefourcenturiesinmaterialciviliza- tionledtothesplendourandpowerofthefirstgreat epochofEgyptianhistory,theOldKingdom.The seatofgovernmentwasatMemphis,wherefourroyal houses,theThird,Fourth,FifthandSixthDynasties, ruledinsuccessionforfivehundredyears(2980-2475
B.c.).Artandmechanicsreachedalevelofunpre-
cedentedexcellenceneverlatersurpassed,whilegovern- mentandadministrationhadneverbeforebeenso highlydeveloped.Foreignenterprisepassedfarbe- yondthelimitsofthekingdom;theminesofSinai, alreadyoperatedintheFirstDynasty,werevigourously exploited;tradeinEgyptianbottomsreachedthecoast ofPhoeniciaandtheIslandsoftheNorth,whileinthe
South,thePharaoh'sfleetspenetratedtotheSomali
coast(Punt)ontheRedSea;andinNubiahisenvoys werestrongenoughtoexercisealoosesovereigntyover thelowercountry,andbytirelessexpeditionstokeep openthetraderoutesleadingtotheSudan.Inthe
SixthDynasty(2625-2475B.c.)thelocalgovernorsof
thecentraladministration,whohadalreadygained
PRELIMINARYSURVEY17
hereditaryholdupontheirofficesintheFifthDynasty (2750-2625B.c.),wereabletoassertthemselvesas landedbaronsandprinces,nolongermerefunction- ariesofthecrown.Theythuspreparedthewayfor anageoffeudalism.
17.Thegrowingpowerofthenewlandednobility
finallycausedthefallofthePharaonichouse,andat thecloseoftheSixthDynasty,about2475B.c.,the supremacyofMemphiswaned.Intheinternalcon- fusionwhichfollowed,wecandiscernnothingof
Manetho'sephemeralSeventhandEighthDynasties
atMemphis,whichlastednotmorethanthirtyyears; butwiththeNinthandTenthDynastiesthenoblesof
Heracleopolisgainedthethrone,whichwasoccupied
byeighteensuccessivekingsoftheline.Itisnowthat
Thebesfirstappearsastheseatofapowerfulfamily
ofprinces,bywhomtheHeracleopolitansandthe powerofthenortharegraduallyovercometillthe
Southtriumphs.Theexactlapseoftimefromthefall
oftheOldKingdomtothetriumphoftheSouthisat presentindeterminable,butitmaybeestimated roughlyattwohundredandseventy-fivetothree hundredyears,withamarginofuncertaintyofpos- siblyacenturyeitherway(BAR,I,53).
18.Withtherestorationofpeaceandorderunder
theThebanprincesoftheEleventhDynastyabout
2160B.c.,theissueofthetendenciesalreadydis-
cernibleatthecloseoftheOldKingdomisclearly visible.Throughoutthelandthelocalprincesand baronsarefirmlyseatedintheirdomains,andwith thesehereditaryfeudatoriesthePharaohmustnow reckon.Thesystemwasnotfullydevelopeduntilthe adventofasecondThebanfamily,theTwelfthDy- nasty,thefounderofwhich,AmenemhetI,probably
18INTRODUCTION
usurpedthethrone.Forovertwohundredyears (2000-1788B.c.)thispowerfullineofkingsruleda feudalstate.Thisfeudalageistheclassicperiodof
Egyptianhistory.Literatureflourished,theorthog-
raphyofthelanguagewasforthefirsttimeregulated, poetryhadalreadyreachedahighlyartisticstructure, theearliestknownliteratureofentertainmentwaspro- duced,sculptureandarchitecturewererichandpro- lific,andtheindustrialartssurpassedallprevious attainments.Theinternalresourcesofthecountry wereelaboratelydeveloped,especiallybycloseatten- tiontotheNileandtheinundation.Enormous hydraulicworksreclaimedlargetractsofcultivable domainintheFayum,inthevicinityofwhichthekings oftheTwelfthDynasty,theAmenemhetsandthe
Sesostrises,lived.Abroadtheexploitationofthe
minesinSinaiwasnowcarriedonbytheconstant labourofpermanentcoloniesthere,withtemples,for- tificationsandreservoirsforthewatersupply.A plunderingcampaignwascarriedintoSyria,tradeand intercoursewithitsSemitictribeswereconstant,and aninterchangeofcommoditieswiththeearlyMycenaean centresofcivilizationinthenorthernMediterranean isevident.TrafficwithPuntandthesoutherncoasts oftheRedSeacontinued,whileinNubiathecountry betweenthefirstandsecondcataracts,looselycon- trolledintheSixthDynasty,wasnowconqueredand heldtributarybythePharaoh,sothatthegoldmines ontheeastofitwereaconstantresourceofhistreasury.
19.ThefalloftheTwelfthDynastyin1788B.c.
wasfollowedbyasecondperiodofdisorganizationand obscurity,asthefeudatoriesstruggledforthecrown.
Afterpossiblyacenturyofsuchinternalconflict,the
countrywasenteredandappropriatedbyalineof
PRELIMINARYSURVEY19
rulersfromAsia,whohadseeminglyalreadygaineda widedominionthere.Theseforeignusurpers,now knownastheHyksos,afterManetho'sdesignationof them,maintainedthemselvesforperhapsacentury.
TheirresidencewasatAvarisintheeasternDelta,
andatleastduringthelaterpartoftheirsupremacy, theEgyptiannoblesoftheSouthsucceededingaining moreorlessindependence.Finallytheheadofa
Thebanfamilyboldlyproclaimedhimselfking,andin
thecourseofsomeyearstheseThebanprincessuc- ceededinexpellingtheHyksosfromthecountry,and drivingthembackfromtheAsiaticfrontierintoSyria.
20.ItwasundertheHyksosandinthestrugglewith
themthattheconservatismofmillenniawasbroken upintheNilevalley.TheEgyptianslearnedaggres- sivewarforthefirsttime,andintroducedawellor- ganizedmilitarysystem,includingchariotry,whichthe importationofthehorsebytheHyksosnowenabled themtodo.Egyptwastransformedintoamilitary empire.InthestrugglewiththeHyksosandwith eachother,theoldfeudalfamiliesperished,orwere absorbedamongthepartisansofthedominantTheban family,fromwhichtheimperiallinesprang.The greatPharaohsoftheEighteenthDynastythusbe- cameemperors,conqueringandrulingfromnorthern
SyriaandtheupperEuphrates,tothefourthcataract
oftheNileonthesouth.Amidunprecedentedwealth andsplendour,theyruledtheirvastdominions,which theygraduallyweldedtogetherintoafairlystable empire,thefirstknownintheearlyworld.Thebes grewintoagreatmetropolis,theearliestmonumental city.ExtensivetraderelationswiththeEastandthe
Mediterraneanworlddeveloped;Mycenaeanproducts
werecommoninEgypt,andEgyptianinfluencesare
20INTRODUCTION
clearlydiscernibleinMycenaeanart.Fortwohundred andthirtyyears(1580-1350B.c.)theEmpirenour- ished,butwaswreckedatlastbyacombinationof adverseinfluencesbothwithinandwithout.Arelig- iousrevolutionbytheyoungandgiftedkingIkhnaton, causedaninternalconvulsionsuchasthecountryhad neverbeforeexperienced;whiletheempireinthe northgraduallydisintegratedundertheaggressionsof theHittites,whopushedinfromAsiaMinor.Atthe sametimeinboththenorthernandsouthernAsiatic dominionsofthePharaoh,anoverflowofBeduinim- migration,amongwhichwereundoubtedlysomeofthe tribeswholatercoalescedwiththeIsraelites,aggravated thedanger,andtogetherwiththepersistentadvanceof theHittites,finallyresultedinthecompletedissolution oftheAsiaticempireofEgypt,downtotheveryfrontier ofthenortheasternDelta.Meanwhiletheinternal disordershadcausedthefalloftheEighteenthDy- nasty,aneventwhichterminatedthefirstPeriodof theEmpire(1350B.c.).
21.Harmhab,oneoftheablecommandersunder
thefallendynasty,survivedthecrisisandfinallyseized thethrone.Underhisvigorousrulethedisorganized nationwasgraduallyrestoredtoorder,andhissucces- sorsoftheNineteenthDynasty(1350-1205B.c.)were abletobegintherecoveryofthelostempireinAsia.
ButtheHittitesweretoofirmlyentrenchedinSyria
toyieldtotheEgyptianonset.TheassaultsofSetiI, andhalfagenerationofpersistentcampaigningunder
RamsesII,failedtopushthenorthernfrontierofthe
EmpirefarbeyondthelimitsofPalestine.Hereit
remainedandSyriawasneverpermanentlyrecovered.
SemiticinfluencesnowpowerfullyaffectedEgypt.At
thisjuncturethepeoplesofsouthernEuropeemerge
PRELIMINARYSURVEY21
forthefirsttimeuponthearenaoforientalhistoryand togetherwithLibyanhordes,threatentooverwhelm theDeltafromthewest.Theywerenevertheless beatenbackbyMerneptah.Afteranotherperiodof internalconfusionandusurpation,duringwhichthe
NineteenthDynastyfell(1205B.c.),RamsesIII,
whosefather,SetnakhtfoundedtheTwentiethDy- nasty(1200-1090B.c.),wasabletomaintainthe
Empireatthesamelimits,againsttheinvasionsof
restlessnortherntribes,whocrushedtheHittitepower; andalsoagainstrepeatedimmigrationsoftheLibyans.
Withhisdeath(1167B.c.)theEmpire,withtheex-
ceptionofNubia,whichwasstillheld,rapidlyfellto pieces.Thus,aboutthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury
B.c.theSecondPeriodoftheimperialageclosedwith
thetotaldissolutionoftheAsiaticdominions.
22.UnderaseriesofweakRamessids,thecountry
rapidlydeclinedandfellapreyfirsttothepowerful highpriestsofAmon,whowereobligedalmostimme- diatelytoyieldtostrongerRamessidrivalsintheDelta atTanis,formingtheTwenty-FirstDynasty(1090-
945B.c.).BythemiddleofthetenthcenturyB.c.
themercenarychiefs,whosefollowershadformedthe armiesofthesecondimperialperiod,hadfounded powerfulfamiliesintheDeltacities,andamongthese theLibyanswerenowsupreme.SheshonkI,a
Libyanmercenarycommander,gainedthethroneas
thefounderoftheTwenty-secondDynastyin945B.c. andthecountryenjoyedtransientprosperity,while
SheshonkevenattemptedtherecoveryofPalestine.
Butthefamilywasunabletocontroltheturbulent
mercenarylords,nowestablishedasdynastsinthe largerDeltatowns,andthecountrygraduallyrelapsed intoaseriesofmilitaryprincipalitiesinconstantwar-
22INTRODUCTION
farewitheachother.ThroughtheentireLibyan periodoftheTwenty-second,Twenty-thirdand
Twenty-fourthDynasties(945-712B.c.)theun-
happynationgroanedundersuchmisrule,constantly sufferingeconomicdeterioration.
23.Nubiahadnowdetacheditselfandadynastyof
kings,probablyofThebanoriginhadarisenatNapata, belowtheFourthCataract.TheseEgyptianrulersof thenewNubiankingdomnowinvadedEgypt,and althoughresidingatNapata,maintainedtheirsover- eigntyinEgyptwithvaryingfortunefortwogenera- tions(722-663B.c.)-Buttheywereunabletosup- pressandexterminatethelocaldynasts,whoruledon, whileacknowledgingthesuzeraintyoftheNubian overlord.Itwasinthemidstoftheseconflictsbetween theNubiandynastyandthemercenarylordsofLower
Egypt,thattheAssyriansfinallyenteredtheDelta,
subduedthecountryandplaceditundertribute(670-
660B.c.)-AtthisjuncturePsamtikI,anable
dynastofSais,inthewesternDelta,finallysucceeded inoverthrowinghisrivals,expelledtheNinevitegarri- sons,andastheNubianshadalreadybeenforced outofthecountrybytheAssyrians,hewasableto foundapowerfuldynasty,andusherintheRestoration.
Hisaccessionfellin663B.c.,andtheentireperiodof
nearlyfivehundredyearsfromthefinaldissolutionof theEmpireabout1150tothedawnoftheRestoration in663B.c.,maybeconvenientlydesignatedthe
Decadence.After1100B.c.theDecadencemaybe
convenientlydividedintotheTanite-AmonitePeriod (1090-945B.c.).theLibyanPeriod(945-712B.c.), theEthiopianPeriod(722^-663B.c.),andtheAssyrian
Period,whichiscontemporarywiththelastyearsof
theEthiopianPeriod.
PRELIMINARYSURVEY23
24.OftheRestoration,likeallthoseepochsinwhich
theseatofpowerwasintheDelta,wherealmostall monumentshaveperished,welearnverylittlefrom nativesources;andalltoolittlealsofromHerodotus andlaterGreekvisitorsintheNilevalley.Itwas outwardlyanageofpowerandsplendour,inwhich thenativepartyendeavouredtorestoretheoldglories oftheclassicagebeforetheEmpire;whilethekings dependinguponGreekmercenaries,weremodern politicians,employingthemethodsofthenewGreek world,minglingintheworld-politicsoftheirageand showinglittlesympathywiththearchaizingtendency.
ButtheircombinationsfailedtosaveEgyptfromthe
ambitionofPersia,anditshistoryundernativedy- nasties,withunimportantexceptions,wasconcluded withtheconquestofthecountrybyCambysesin525 B.c.
25.Such,inmechanicalreview,werethepurely
externaleventswhichmarkedthesuccessiveepochsof
Egypt'shistoryasanindependentnation.Withtheir
dates,theseepochsmaybesummarizedthus:
IntroductionoftheCalendar,4241B.c.
PredynasticAge,before3400B.c.
TheAccessionofMenes,3400B.c.
ThefirstTwoDynasties,3400-2980B.c.
TheOldKingdom:DynastiesThreetoSix,2980-
2475B.c.
DynastiesSevenandEight,2475-2445B.c.
EighteenHeracleopolitans,DynastiesNineandTen,
2445-2160B.c.
TheMiddleKingdom:DynastiesElevenandTwelve
2160-1788B.c.
InternalConBictsoftheFeudatories,)1788-1580
TheHyksos,)B.c.
24INTRODUCTION
TheEmpire:FirstPeriod,theEighteenthDynasty,
1580-1350B.c.
TheEmpire:SecondPeriod,theNineteenthand
partoftheTwentiethDynasty,1350-1150B.c.
LastTwoGenerationsofTwentieth
Dynasty,about1150to1090B.c.
Tanite-AmonitePeriod,Twenty-first
Dynasty,1090-945B.c.
TheDecadenciLibyanPeriod,DynastiesTwenty-
twotoTwenty-four,945-712B.c.
EthiopianPeriod,722-663B.c.
(Twenty-fifthDynasty,712-661 B.c.
AssyrianSupremacy,670-660B.c.
TheRestoration,660-525B.c.(SaitePeriod,
Twenty-sixthDynasty,663-525.B.c).
26.Thereaderwillfindattheendofthevolumea
fullertableofreigns.Thechronologyoftheabove tableisobtainedbytwoindependentprocesses :firstby "deadreckoning,"andsecondbyastronomicalcalcula- tionsbasedontheEgyptiancalendar.By"dead reckoning"wemeansimplytheadditionoftheknown minimumlengthofallthekings'reigns,andfromthe totalthusobtained,thesimplecomputation(backward fromafixedstartingpoint)ofthedateofthebeginning oftheseriesofreignssoadded.Employingallthe latestdatesfromrecentdiscoveries,itismathematically certainthatfromtheaccessionoftheEighteenthDy- nastytotheconquestofthePersiansin525B.c.the successivePharaohsreignedatleast1052yearsinall (BAR,I,47-51).TheEighteenthDynastytherefore begannotlaterthan1577B.c.Astronomicalcalcula- tions(independentoftheabovedeadreckoning),based
PRELIMINARYSURVEY25
onthedateoftherisingofSirius,andoftheoccur- renceofnewmoonsbothintermsoftheshifting
Egyptiancalendar,placethedateoftheaccessionof
theEighteenthDynastywithfairprecisionin1580
B.c.(BAR,I,38-46).Fortheperiodsearlierthan
theEighteenthDynasty,wecannolongeremploythe methodofdeadreckoningalone,becauseofthescanti- nessofthecontemporarydocuments.Fortunatelyan- othercalendardateoftherisingofSirius,fixesthe adventoftheTwelfthDynastyat2000B.c.,witha marginofuncertaintyofnotmorethanayearortwo eitherway.Fromthisdatethebeginningofthe
EleventhDynastyisagainonlyamatterof"dead
reckoning."Theuncertaintyastothedurationofthe
Heracleopolitansupremacymakesthelengthofthe
periodbetweentheOldandMiddleKingdomsvery uncertain.IfwegivetheeighteenHeracleopolitans sixteenyearseach,which,underorderlyconditions,is afairaverageintheOrient,theywillhaveruled288 years(BAR,I,53).Inestimatingtheirdurationat
285years,wemayerrpossiblyasmuchasacentury
eitherway.ThecomputationofthelengthoftheOld
Kingdomisbasedoncontemporarymonumentsand
earlylists,inwhichthemarginoferrorisprobablynot morethanagenerationortwoeitherway,buttheun- certainlengthoftheHeracleopolitanruleaffectsall datesbackofthatage,andashiftofacenturyeither wayintheyearsB.c.isnotimpossible.Theancient annalsofthePalermoStoneestablishthelengthofthe firsttwodynastiesatroughly420years(MC,201/.,
BAR,I,84-85),andthedateoftheaccessionofMenes
andtheunionofEgyptas3400B.c.;butwecarry backwithus,fromtheHeracleopolitanage,thesame widemarginofuncertaintyasintheOldKingdom.
26INTRODUCTION
Thereaderwillhaveobservedthatthissystemof
chronologyisbaseduponthecontemporarymonu- mentsandlistsdatingnotlaterthan1200B.c.The extremelyhighdatesforthebeginningofthedynasties currentinsomehistoriesareinheritedfromanolder generationofEgyptologists;andarebaseduponthe chronologyofManetho,alate,careless,anduncritical compilation,thedynastictotalsofwhichcanbeproven wrongfromthecontemporarymonumentsinthevast majorityofcases,wheresuchmonumentshavesur- vived.Itsdynastictotalsaresoabsurdlyhighthrough- out,thattheyarenotworthyofamoment'scredence, beingoftennearlyorquitedoublethemaximumdrawn fromcontemporarymonuments,andtheywillnotstand theslightestcarefulcriticism.Theiraccuracyisnow maintainedonlybyasmallandconstantlydecreasing numberofmodernscholars.
27.Likeourchronologyourknowledgeoftheearly
historyofEgyptmustbegleanedfromthecontempo- rarynativemonuments(BAR,I,1-37).Monumental records,evenwhenfullandcompleteareatbestbut insufficientsources,affordingdataforonlythemeagrest outlinesofgreatachievementsandimportantepochs.
Whilethematerialcivilizationofthecountryfound
adequateexpressioninmagnificentworksoftheartist, craftsmanandengineer,theinnerlifeofthenation, oreventhepurelyexternaleventsofmomentcould findrecordonlyincidentally.Suchdocumentsare sharplydifferentiatedfromthematerialswithwhich thehistorianofEuropeannationsdeals,exceptof courseinhisstudyoftheearliestages.Extensive correspondencebetweenstatesmen,journalsanddiaries, statedocumentsandreportssuchmaterialsasthese arealmostwhollywantinginmonumentalrecords.
PRELIMINARYSURVEY27
ImaginewritingahistoryofGreecefromthefewGreek
inscriptionssurviving.Moreover,wepossessnohis- toryofEgyptofsufficientlyearlydatebyanative
Egyptian;thecompilationofpuerilefolk-talesby
Manetho,inthethirdcenturyB.c.ishardlyworthy
ofthenamehistory.Butanannalistoftheremote ageswithwhichwearetodeal,couldhavehadlittle conceptionofwhatwouldbeimportantforfutureages toknow,evenifhehadundertakenafullchronicleof historicalevents.Scantyannalswereindeedkept fromtheearliesttimes,butthesehaveentirelyperished withtheexceptionoftwofragments,thenowfamous
PalermoStone(BAR,I,76-167;BH,24),whichonce
boretheannalsoftheearliestdynastiesfromthe beginningdownintotheFifthDynasty;andsomeex- tractsfromtherecordsofThutmoseIll'scampaigns inSyria.Oftheothermonumentsofincidentalchar- acterbutthemerestfractionhassurvived.Under thesecircumstancesweshallprobablyneverbeableto offermorethanasketchofthecivilizationoftheOld andMiddleKingdoms,withahazyoutlineofthe generaldriftofevents.UndertheEmpiretheavail- abledocuments,bothinqualityandquantity,forthe firsttimeapproachtheminimum,whichinEuropean historywouldberegardedasadequatetoamoderately fullpresentationofthecareerofthenation.Scoresof importantquestions,however,stillremainunanswered, inwhateverdirectionweturn.Neverthelessarough frame-workofthegovernmentalorganization,thecon- stitutionofsociety,themostimportantachievements oftheemperors,andtoalimitedextentthespiritof theage,maybediscernedandsketchedinthemain outlines,eventhoughitisonlyhereandtherethat thesourcesenableustofillinthedetail.IntheDe-
28INTRODUCTION
cadenceandtheRestoration,however,thesamepau- cityofdocuments,sopainfullyapparentintheolder periods,againleavesthehistorianwithalongseries ofhypothesesandprobabilities.Forthereservewith whichtheauthorhasconstantlytreatedsuchperiods, hebegsthereadertoholdthescantysourcesresponsible (BAR,I,1-26),
EARLIESTEGYPT
28.THEforefathersofthepeoplewithwhomwe
shallhavetodealwererelatedtotheLibyansornorth
Africansontheonehand,andontheothertothe
peoplesofeasternAfrica,nowknownastheGalla,
Somali,Bega,andothertribes.Aninvasionofthe
NilevalleybySemiticnomadsofAsia,stampedits
essentialcharacterunmistakablyuponthelanguageof theAfricanpeoplethere.Theearlieststrataofthe
Egyptianlanguageaccessibletous,betrayclearlythis
compositeorigin.WhilestillcolouredbyitsAfrican antecedents,thelanguageisinstructureSemitic.It ismoreoveracompletedproductasobservableinour earliestpreservedexamplesofit;butthefusionofthe
LibyansandeastAfricanswiththeNilevalleypeoples
continuedfarintohistorictimes,andinthecaseof theLibyansmaybetracedinancienthistoricaldocu- mentsforthreethousandyearsormore.TheSemitic immigrationfromAsia,examplesofwhicharealso observableinthehistoricage,occurredinanepoch thatliesfarbelowourremotesthistoricalhorizon. "Weshallneverbeabletodeterminewhen,norwith certaintythroughwhatchannelsittookplace,al- thoughthemostprobablerouteisthatalongwhich wemayobserveasimilarinfluxfromthedesertsof
Arabiainhistorictimes,theisthmusofSuez,bywhich
30INTRODUCTION
theMohammedaninvasionenteredthecountry.While theSemiticlanguagewhichtheybroughtwiththem leftitsindelibleimpressupontheoldNilevalleypeople, thenomadiclifeofthedesertwhichtheinvadersleft behindthemevidentlywasnotsopersistent,andthe religionofEgypt,thatelementoflifewhichalways receivesthestampofitsenvironment,showsnotrace ofdesertlife.Theaffinitiesobservableinthelanguage areconfirmedincaseoftheLibyansbythesurviving productsofarchaiccivilizationintheNilevalley,such assomeoftheearlypottery,whichcloselyresembles thatstillmadebytheLibyanKabyles.Againtherep- resentationsoftheearlyPuntites,orSomalipeople,on theEgyptianmonuments,showstrikingresemblances totheEgyptiansthemselves.Theexaminationofthe bodiesexhumedfromarchaicburialsintheNilevalley, whichwehadhopedmightbringfurtherevidencefor thesettlementoftheethnicproblem,has,however, producedsuchdiversityofopinionamongthephysical anthropologists,astorenderitimpossibleforthe historiantoobtaindecisiveresultsfromtheirresearches.
Ithas,however,beenshownthattheprehistoricand
thehistoricEgyptiansasnowfoundintheancient cemeteriesareidenticalinrace.
29.Asfoundintheearliestburialsto-day,thepre-
dynasticEgyptianswereadark-hairedpeople,already possessedoftherudimentsofcivilization.Themen woreaskinovertheshoulders,sometimesskindrawers, andagainonlyashortwhitelinenkilt;whilethe womenwereclothedinlonggarmentsofsometextile, probablylinen,reachingfromtheshoulderstothe ankles.Statuettesofbothsexeswithoutclothing whateverare,however,verycommon.Sandalswere notunknown.Theyoccasionallytattooedtheirbodies,
EARLIESTEGYPT31
andtheyalsowroughtornamentssuchasrings,brace- letsandpendantsofstone,ivoryandbone;withbeads offlint,quartz,carnelian,agateandthelike.The womendressedtheirhairwithornamentedivorycombs andpins.Fortheeye-andface-paintnecessaryfor thetoilettheyhadpalettesofcarvedslateonwhich thegreencolourwasground.Theywereabletobuild dwellingsofwattle,sometimessmearedwithmud,and probablylaterofsun-driedbrick.Inthefurnishing ofthesehousestheydisplayedconsiderablemechanical skill,andarudimentaryartistictaste.Theyatewith ivoryspoons,sometimesevenrichlycarvedwithfigures ofanimalsintheround,marchingalongthehandle.
Althoughthewheelwasatfirstunknowntothem,they
producedfinepotteryofthemostvariedformsinvast quantities.ThemuseumsofEuropeandAmericaare nowfilledwiththeirpolishedredandblackware,ora varietywithincisedgeometricaldesigns,sometimesin basketpatterns,whileanotherstyleofgreatimportance tousispaintedwithruderepresentationsofboats,men, animals,birds,fishortrees.Whiletheymadenoob- jectsofglass,theyunderstoodtheartofglazingbeads, plaquesandthelike.Crudestatuettesinwood,ivory, orstone,representthebeginningsofthatplasticart whichwastoachievesuchtriumphsintheearlydy- nasticage;andthreelargestonestatuesofMin,found byPetrieatCoptos,displaytherudestrengthofthe predynasticcivilizationofwhichwearenowspeaking.Theartoftheprolificpotterwasobligedtogiveway slowlytotheartificerinstone,whofinallyproduced excellentstonevessels,which,ongainingtheuseof coppertools,herapidlyimprovedtowardtheendofthe predynasticperiod,whenhisbowlsandjarsinthe hardeststones,likethedioritesandporphyries,display
32INTRODUCTION
magnificentwork.Themostcunninglywroughtflints thathaveeverbeenfoundamonganypeoplebelongto thisage.Themakerswereultimatelyabletoaffix carvedivoryhafts,andwithequalskilltheyputtogether stoneandflintaxes,flint-headedfish-spearsandthe like.Thewarmacewithpear-shapedhead,asfound alsoinBabylonia,ischaracteristicoftheage.Sideby sidewithsuchweaponsandimplementstheyalsopro- ducedandusedweaponsandimplementsofcopper.
Itisindeedtheageoftheslowtransitionfromstoneto
copper.Gold,silverandlead,whilerare,wereinuse.
30.InthefruitfulNilevalleywecannotthinkof
suchapeopleasotherthanchieflyagricultural;and thefactthattheyemergeintohistoricaltimesasagri- culturalists,withanancientreligionofvastlyremote prehistoricorigin,whosesymbolsandoutwardmani- festationsclearlybetraytheprimitivefanciesofan agriculturalandpastoralpeopleallthiswouldlead tothesameconclusion.Intheunsubduedjunglesof theNile,animallifewasofcoursemuchmoreplentiful atthattimethannow;theelephant,giraffe,hippo- potamusandthestrangeokapi,whichwasdeifiedas thegodSet,wanderedthroughthejungles,thoughall theseanimalswerelaterextinct.Theseearlymen werethereforegreathunters,aswellasskilfulfisher- men.Theypursuedthemostformidablegameofthe desert,likethelionorthewildox,withbowsand arrows;andinlightboatstheyattackedthehippo- potamusandthecrocodilewithharpoonsandlances.
Theycommemoratedtheseandlikedeedsinrudepict-
uresincisedontherocks,wheretheyarestillfound intheNilevalley,coveredwithaheavybrownpatina ofweathering,suchashistoricsculpturesneverdisplay; thusshowingtheirvastage.
EARLIESTEGYPT33
31.Theirindustriesmayhaveresultedinrudi-
mentarycommercefor,besidestheirsmallhunting- boats,theybuiltvesselsofconsiderablesizeontheNile, apparentlypropelledbymanyoarsandguidedbya largerudder.Sailingshipswererare,buttheywere notunknown.Theirvesselsborestandards,probably indicatingtheplacefromwhicheachhailed,foramong themappearwhatmaybethecrossedarrowsofthe goddessNeitofSais,whileanelephantimmediately suggeststhelaterElephantine.Theseensignsare,in somecases,strikinglysimilartothoselateremployed inhieroglyphicasthestandardsofthelocalcommuni- ties,andtheirpresenceontheearlyshipssuggeststhe existenceofsuchcommunitiesinthoseprehistoricdays.Thelateradministrativeorfeudaldivisionsofthe countryinhistorictimes,thenomes,astheGreeks calledthem,towhichweshalloftenhaveoccasionto refer,arelikelytohavebeensurvivalsofsuchprehis- toricpettystatesasthesestandardssuggest.Ifthis betrue,therewereprobablysometwentysuchstates distributedalongtheriverinUpperEgypt.However thismaybe,thesepeoplewerealreadyatastageof civilizationwhereconsiderabletownsappearandcity- states,asinBabylonia,musthavedeveloped,eachwith itschiefordynast,itslocalgod,worshippedinacrude sanctuary;anditsmarkettowhichthetributary,out- lyingcountrywasattracted.Thelongprocessby whichsuchcommunitiesgrewupcanbeonlysurmised fromtheanalogyofsimilardevelopmentselsewhere, forthesmallkingdomsandcity-states,outofwhich thenationwasultimatelyconsolidated,donotfall withinthehistoricage,asinBabylonia.
32.Thegradualfusionwhichfinallymergedthese
pettystatesintotwokingdoms:oneintheDelta,and
34INTEODUCTION
theothercomprisingthestatesofthevalleyabove,is likewiseaprocessofwhichwe$hallneverknowthe course.Ofitsheroesanditsconquerors,itswarsand conquests,notanechowilleverreachus;noristhere theslightestindicationofthelength\oftimeconsumed bythisprocess.Itwillhardlyhave\beenconcluded, however,before4000B.c.Ourknowledgeofthe twokingdomswhichemergedattheendofthislong prehistoricageisbutslightlymoresatisfactory.The
Deltawas,throughthehistoricage,opentoinroadsof
theLibyanswhodweltuponthewestofit;andthecon- stantinfluxofpeoplefromthissourcegavethewestern
DeltaadistinctlyLibyancharacterwhichitpreserved
evendowntothetimeofHerodotus.Attheearliestmo- ment,whenthemonumentsrevealtheconditionsinthe
Delta,thePharaohiscontendingwiththeLibyanin-
vaders,andtheearlierkingdomoftheNorthwillthere- forehavebeenstronglyLibyan,ifindeeditdidnotowe itsorigintothissource.Reliefsrecentlydiscoveredat
AbusirshowfourLibyanchieftainswearingontheir
browstheroyalureeusserpentofthePharaohs,to whomitthereforedescendedfromsomeearlyLibyan kingoftheDelta.ThetempleatSais,inthewestern
Delta,thechiefcentreofLibyaninfluenceinEgypt,
borethename"HouseoftheKingofLowerEgypt" (theDelta),andtheemblemofNeit,itschiefgoddess wastattooedbytheLibyansupontheirarms.Itmay thereforehavebeenanearlyresidenceofaLibyan kingoftheDelta,althoughthecapitaloftheNorth wastraditionallyButo.Asitscoatofarmsorsymbol theNorthernKingdomemployedatuftofpapyrus plant,whichgrewsoplentifullyinitsmarshesasto bedistinctiveofit.Thekinghimselfwasdesignated byabee,andworeuponhisheadaredcrown,
EARLIESTEGYPT35
bothincolourandshapepeculiartohiskingdom.
Allofthesesymbolsareverycommoninlaterhiero-
glyphic.Redwasthedistinctivecolourofthenorth- ernkingdomanditstreasurywascalledthe"Red
House."
33.UnfortunatelytheDeltaissodeeplyoverlaid
withdepositsofNilemudthatthematerialremains ofitsearliestcivilizationareburiedforeverfromour reach.Thatcivilizationwasprobablyearlierand moreadvancedthanthatofthevalleyabove.Already intheforty-thirdcenturyB.c.themenoftheDelta haddiscoveredtheyearofthreehundredandsixty-five daysandtheyintroducedacalendaryearofthislength, beginningonthedaywhenSiriusroseatsunrise,as determinedinthelatitudeofthesouthernDelta,where theseearliestastronomerslived,in4241B.C.(MC,
38ff.).ItisthecivilizationoftheDelta,therefore,which
furnishesuswiththeearliestfixeddateinthehistory oftheworld.ItwasthusalsothesemenoftheDelta whofurnishedthemoderncivilizedworldwithits calendar,which,astheydevisedit,withtwelvethirty- daymonthsandfiveintercalaryfeastdays,wasthe onlypracticalcalendarknowninantiquity.Theyear beganonthatdaywhenSiriusfirstappearedonthe easternhorizonatsunrise(theheliacalrising),whichin ourcalendarwasonthenineteenthofJuly(Julian).
Butasthiscalendaryearwasinrealityaboutaquarter
ofadayshorterthanthesolaryear,itthereforegained afulldayeveryfouryears,thusslowlyrevolvingonthe astronomicalyear,passingentirelyarounditoncein fourteenhundredandsixtyyears,onlytobeginthe revolutionagain.Anastronomicaleventlikethe heliacalrisingofSirius,whendatedintermsofthe
Egyptiancalendar,maythereforebecomputedand
36INTRODUCTION
datedwithinfouryearsintermsofourreckoning,that is,inyearsB.C.
34.ThekingdomofUpperEgyptwasmoredis-
tinctivelyEgyptianthanthatoftheDelta.Ithadits capitalatNekheb,modernElKab,anditsstandardor symbolwasalilyplant,whileanothersouthernplant servedastheensignoftheking,whowasfurtherdis- tinguishedbyatallwhitecrown,whitebeingthecolour oftheSouthernKingdom.Itstreasurywastherefore knownasthe"WhiteHouse."Therewasaroyal residenceacrosstheriverfromNekheb,calledNekhen, thelaterHieraconpolis,whilecorrespondingtoitin theNorthernKingdomwasasuburbofButo,calledPe.
Eachcapitalhaditspatronessorprotectinggoddess:
Buto,theserpent-goddess,intheNorth;andinthe
Souththevulture-goddess,Nekhbet.Butatboth
capitalsthehawk-godHoruswasworshippedasthe distinctivepatrondeityofbothkings.Thepeopleof thetimebelievedinalifehereafter,subjecttowantsof thesamenatureasthoseofthepresentlife.Their cemeteriesarewidelydistributedalongthemarginof thedesertinUpperEgypt,andoflateyearsthousands ofintermentshavebeenexcavated.Thetombisusu- allyaflat-bottomedovalorrectangularpit,inwhich thebody,doubledintothe"contracted"or"embry- onic"posture,liesonitsside.Intheearliestburials itiswrappedinaskin,butlateralsoinwovenfabric; thereisnotraceofembalmment.Beneaththebody isfrequentlyamatofplaitedrushes;itoftenhasin thehandoratthebreastaslatepaletteforgrinding face-paint,thegreenmalachiteforwhichliesnearina smallbag.Thebodyisbesidesaccompaniedbyother articlesoftoiletorofadornmentandissurroundedby jarsofpotteryorstonecontainingashororganic
EARLIESTEGYPT37
matter,theremainsoffood,drinkandointmentforthe deceasedinthehereafter.Notonlywerethetoiletand otherbodilywantsofthedeceasedthusprovidedfor, buthewasalsogivenhisflintweaponsorbone-tipped harpoonsthathemightreplenishhislarderfromthe chase.Claymodelsofobjectswhichhemightneed werealsogivenhim,especiallyboats.Thepitsare sometimesroughlyroofedoverwithbranches,covered withaheapofdesertsandandgravel,formingrudi- mentarytombs,andlatertheycametobelinedwith crude,sun-driedbrick.Sometimesahuge,roughly hemisphericalbowlofpotterywasinvertedoverthe bodyasitlayinthepit.Theseburialsfurnishthesole contemporarymaterialforourstudyofthepredynastic age.Thegodsofthehereafterwereappealedtoin prayersandmagicalformulae,whicheventuallytook conventionalandtraditionalforminwriting.Athou- sandyearslaterinthedynasticagefragmentsofthese mortuarytextsarefoundinuseinthepyramidsofthe
FifthandSixthDynasties(seepp.65-8).PepiI,a
kingoftheSixthDynasty,inhisrebuildingofthe
Denderehtemple,claimedtobereproducingaplanof
asanctuaryofthepredynastickingsonthatspot.
Templesofsomesorttheythereforeevidentlyhad.
35.Whiletheythusearlypossessedalltherudiments
ofmaterialculture,thepeopleofthisagedevelopeda systemofwritingalso.Thecomputationsnecessary forthediscoveryanduseofthecalendarshowauseof writinginthelastcenturiesofthefifthmillenniumB.c.
Itisshownalsobythefactthatnearlyathousandyears
laterthescribesoftheFifthDynastywereabletocopy alonglistofthekingsoftheNorth,andperhapsthose oftheSouthalso(BAR,I,76-167);whilethemortuary textstowhichwehavereferredwillnothavesurvived
38INTRODUCTION
athousandyearswithouthavingbeencommittedto writinginthesameway.Thehieroglyphsforthe
NorthernKingdom,foritsking,andforitstreasury
cannothavearisenatonestrokewiththefirstkingof thedynasticage;butmusthavebeeninuselong beforetheriseoftheFirstDynasty;whilethepresence ofacursivelinearhandatthebeginningofthedy- nastiesisconclusiveevidencethatthesystemwasnot thenarecentinnovation.
36.OfthedeedsoftheseremotekingsoftheNorth
andSouth,whopassedawaybeforethreethousandfour hundredB.C.,weknownothing.Theirtombshave neverbeendiscovered,afactwhichaccountsforthe lackofanywrittenmonumentsamongthecontem- porarydocuments,allofwhichcomefromtombsof thepoorerclasses,suchascontainnowritingevenin thedynasticage.Sevennamesofthekingsofthe
Delta,likeSeka,Khayu,orThesh,aloneofalltheline
havesurvived;butoftheSouthernKingdomnoteven aroyalnamehasdescendedtous,unlessitbethatof theScorpion,which,occurringonsomefewremains ofthisearlyage,wasprobablythatofoneofthepower- fulchieftainsoftheSouth(BAR,I,166).Thescribes oftheFifthDynastywhodrewupthislistofkings, someeighthundredyearsafterthelinehadpassed away,seemtohaveknownonlytheroyalnames,and wereunableto,oratleastdidnotrecord,anyoftheir achievements(BAR,I,90).Asaclassthesekingsof theNorthandSouthwereknowntotheirposterityas the"worshippersofHorus";andasagespassedthey becamehalf-mythicfigures,graduallytobeendowed withsemi-divineattributes,untiltheywereregarded asthedemi-godswhosucceededthedivinedynasties, thegreatgodswhohadruledEgyptinthebeginning
EARLIESTEGYPT89
(SU,III).Theiroriginalcharacterasdeceasedkings, asknowntotheearlierdynasties,ledtotheirbeing consideredespeciallyasalineofthedivinedeadwho hadruledoverthelandbeforetheaccessionofhuman kings;andinthehistoricalworkofManethothey appearsimplyas"thedead."Thustheirrealhistor- icalcharacterwasfinallycompletelysublimated,then tomergeintounsubstantialmyth,andtheancientkings oftheNorthandtheSouthwereworshippedinthe capitalswheretheyhadonceruled.
37.Thenextstepinthelongandslowevolutionof
nationalunitywastheunionoftheNorthandtheSouth.
Thetraditionwhichwasstillcurrentinthedaysofthe
GreeksinEgypt,totheeffectthatthetwokingdoms
wereunitedbyakingnamedMenes,isfullyconfirmed bytheevidenceoftheearlymonuments.Thefigureof
Menes,butafewyearssinceasvagueandelusiveas
thoseofthe"worshippersofHorus,"whoprecededhim, hasnowbeenclothedwithunmistakablereality,and heatlaststepsforthintohistorytoheadthelongline ofPharaohswhohaveyettopassusinreview.It musthavebeenaskilfulwarriorandavigorousad- ministrator,whothusgatheredtheresourcesofthe
SouthernKingdomsowellinhandthathewasable
toinvadeandconquertheDelta,andthusmergethe twokingdomsintoonenation,completingthelong processofcentralizationwhichhadbeengoingonfor manycenturies.HisnativecitywasThinis,anob- scureplaceinthevicinityofAbydos,whichwasnot nearenoughtothecentreofhisnewkingdomtoserve ashisresidence,andwecaneasilycreditthenarrative ofHerodotusthathebuiltagreatdam,divertingthe courseoftheNileabovethesiteofMemphisthathe mightgainroomthereforacity.Thisstronghold,
40INTRODUCTION
perhapsnotyetcalledMemphis,wasprobablyknown asthe"WhiteWall,"inreferenceofcoursetothe
WhiteKingdom,whosepoweritrepresented.Ifwe
maybelievethetraditionofHerodotus'time,itwas fromthisplace,situatedsofavourablyontheborder betweenthetwokingdoms,thatMenesprobablygov- ernedthenewnationwhichhehadcreated.Hecarried hisarmsalsosouthwardagainstnorthernNubia(NGH,
20),whichthenextendedbelowthefirstcataractasfar
northwardasthenomeofEdfu.Accordingtothe traditionofManetho,hewasblessedwithalongreign, andthememoryofhisgreatachievementwasimperish- able,aswehaveseen.HewasburiedinUpperEgypt, eitheratAbydosnearhisnativeThinis,orsomedis- tanceaboveitnearthemodernvillageofNegadeh, wherealargebricktomb,probablyhis,stillsurvives.
InitandsimilartombsofhissuccessorsatAbydos
writtenmonumentsofhisreignhavebeenfound,and evenagoldenfragmentofhisroyaladornments,bear- inghisname,whichthisancientfounderoftheEgyptian stateworeuponhisperson.
38.Thekingsofthisremoteprotodynasticageareno
longermerelyaseriesofnamesasbutafewyearssince theystillwere.Asagroupatleast,weknowmuch oftheirlifeanditssurroundings;althoughweshall neverbeabletodiscernthemaspossessedofdistinguish- ablepersonality.Theyblendtogetherwithoutdistinc- tionaschildrenoftheirage.Theoutwardinsignia whichallalikeemployedwerenowaccommodatedto theunitedkingdom.Theking'sfavouritetitlewas "Horus,"bywhichheidentifiedhimselfasthesuc- cessorofthegreatgodwhohadonceruledoverthe kingdom.Everywhere,onroyaldocuments,sealsand thelike,appearedtheHorus-hawkasthesymbolof
EARLIESTEGYPT41
royalty.Hewasmounteduponarectanglerepresent- ingthefacadeofabuilding,probablytheking'spalace, withinwhichwaswrittentheking'sofficialname.The otherorpersonalnameoftherulerwasprecededby thebeeoftheNorthandtheplantoftheSouthern
King,toindicatethathehadnowabsorbedbothtitles;
whilewiththesetwosymbolsthereoftenappearedalso
Nekhbet,thevulture-goddessofElKab,thesouthern
capital,sidebysidewithButo,theserpent-goddessof thenortherncapital.Onthesculpturesofthetime, theprotectingvulturehoverswithoutspreadwings overtheheadoftheking,butashefelthimselfstill asprimarilykingofUpperEgypt,itwasnotuntil laterthatheworetheserpentoftheNorth,thesacred urEeusuponhisforehead.SimilarlySetsometimesap- pearswithHorus,precedingtheking'spersonalname, thetwogodsthusrepresentingtheNorthandtheSouth, dividingthelandbetweentheminaccordancewiththe mythwhichweshalllaterhaveoccasiontodiscuss. isoftenspokenofasthe"doublelord."Thushis dominionoveraunitedEgyptwasconstantlypro- claimed.
39.Weseethekingonceremoniousoccasionsap-
pearinginsomestate,precededbyfourstandard- bearersandaccompaniedbyhischancellor,personal attendants,orascribe,andtwofan-bearers.Hewore thewhitecrownofUpperortheredcrownofLower
Egypt,orevenacuriouscombinationofthecrownsof
bothkingdoms,andasimplegarmentsuspendedbya strapoveroneshoulder,towhichalion'stailwasap- pendedbehind.Sodressedandsoattendedhecon- ductedtriumphantcelebrationsofhisvictoriesorled theceremoniesattheopeningofcanalsortheinaugura-
42INTRODUCTION
tionofpublicworks.Onthethirtiethanniversaryof hisappointmentbyhisfatherascrownprincetothe heirshipofthekingdom,thekingcelebratedagreat jubileecalledthe"FeastofSed,"awordmeaning "tail,"andperhapscommemoratinghisassumption oftheroyallion'stailathisappointmentthirtyyears before.Hewasamightyhunter,andrecordedwith prideanachievementliketheslayingofahippopotamus.
Hisweaponswerecostlyandelaborate,asweshallsee.
Hisseveralpalaceseachboreaname,andtheroyal
estatepossessedgardensandvineyards,thelatterbeing als