[PDF] A history of the ancient Egyptianspdf

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C&eIjMstoricalSeriesfoeTBfble^tuDcnts

PBOFBSSOECHARLESF.KENT,PH.D.,ofYaleUni

RFRANKK.SANDERS,PH.D.,formerlyof

YaleUniversity

Volumev

AHISTORY

ANCIENTEGYPTIANS

CftehistoricalSeriesforTSibltStudents

Italsorefersfreelytothebiblicalandmonumentalsources,andlothestandardaulhoii-

VOLS.I.HISTORYOFTHEHEBREWPEOPLE.

1.TheUnitedKingdom.Sixthedi-CHARLESF.KENT,Ph.D.,Professorof

2.The^D'ivldedKingdom.Sixthedi-B'bhCa'LlteratUrC'

II.HISTORYOFTHEJEWISHPEOPLE.

3.TheBabylonian,Persian,andGreekCHARLESF.KENT,Ph.D.,Professorof

III.CONTEMPORARYOLDTESTAMENTHISTORY.

IV.NEWTESTAMENTHISTORIES.

7.TheLifeofJesus.RUSHRHFFS,PresidentnftheUniversity

8.TheApostolicAge.GEOBnE

C

T."'URVES,Ph.D.,D.D..late

and C lxegesis, C1 pruKetSLTheological

V.OUTLINESFORTHESTUDYOFBIBLICAL

HISTORYANDLITERATURE.

9.FromEarliestTimesto200A.D.FRANKK.SANDERS,Ph.D.,Professorof

AHISTORY

THEANCIENTEGYPTIANS

JAMESHENRYBREASTED,Pn.I).

WITHFOURMAPSANDTIIR%PLANS

NEWYORK

CHARLESSCRIBNER'SSONS

MYFATHER

INREVERENCEANDGKA

PREFACE

AsworksontheearlyOrientmultiply,itbecomes

moreandmoreeasytoproducesuchbooksatsecond andthirdhand,whicharethusseparatedbyalong primarysourcesofknowledge.Astheuseofthisvol- umeisinameasureconditionedbythemethodwhich producedit,maytheauthorstatethatitisbaseddi- rectlyandimmediatelyuponthemonuments,andin mostcasesupontheoriginalmonuments,ratherthan uponanypublishededitionofthesame?Forthispur- posethehistoricalmonumentsstillstandinginEgypt, orinstalledinthemuseumsofEurope(thelatterinto- to),werecopiedorcollatedbytheauthoranewadhoc andrenderedintoEnglish(seeinfra,p.445,B.Trans- lations,BAR).Uponthiscompleteversionthepresent volumerests.Thosestudentswhodesiretoconsult thesourcesuponwhichanygivenfactisbased,arere- ferredtothisEnglishcorpus.Afullbibliographyof eachoriginalmonument,ifdesired,willalsobefound there,andhencenoreferencestosuchtechnicalbibliog- raphywillbefoundherein,thusfreeingthereader fromamassofworkshopdebris,towhich,however, hecaneasilyrefer,ifhedesiresit.

Whilethisvolumeislargelyacondensationand

abridgementoftheauthor'slongerhistory,hehasen- deavouredtoconformittothedesignofthishistorical seriesandtomakeitasfaraspossibleahistoryofthe

Egyptianpeople.Atthesametimetheremarkable

recentdiscoveriesandtheprogressofresearchmade sincetheappearanceofhislargerhistoryhavebeen fullyincorporated.ThediscoveryoftheHittitecapital recordsofthisremarkablepeople,andelsewherethe evidencethattheyconqueredBabyloniatemporarilyin theeighteenthcenturyB.c.,formthemostremarkable ofthenewfactsrecentlyrecovered.*Thenew-found evidencethatthefirstandthirddynastiesofBabylon werecontemporaneouswiththesecond,hasalsosettled theproblem,whetherthecivilizationoftheNileorofthe

Euphratesisolder,infavourofEgypt,wheretheforma-

tionofahomogeneous,unitedstate,embracingthe wholecountryunderthesuccessivedynasties,isovera thousandyearsolderthaninBabylonia.Wepossessno monumentofBabylonia,asEduardMeyerrecently remarkedtotheauthor,olderthan3000B.c.The author'sjourneythroughSudaneseNubiaduringthe winterof1906-07clearedhismindofanumberofmis- conceptionsofthatcountry,especiallyeconomically, whileitalsorecoveredthelostcityofGem-Aton,and disposedoftheimpossiblethoughcurrentviewthatthe

Egyptianconquestwasextendedsouthwardimmedi-

atelyafterthefalloftheMiddleKingdom.Thosefa- miliarwiththeotherhistorywillalsowelcometheim- provedmapsredrawnforthisvolume.

Onthenever-settledquestionofapronounceable,

*ThisbookwaspagedinOctober,1907,butastheproofwas unhappilylostforthreemonthsintransporttoEurope,there- sultsofthesecondcampaign(summerof1907)atBoghaz-Kbi,whichappearedinDecember,1907,couldnotbeemployedin detailastheymightotherwisehavebeen. thatisvocalized,formofEgyptianpropernames, whicharewritteninhieroglyphicwithoutvowels,Imust referthereadertotheremarksintheprefaceofmyAn- cientRecords(Vol.I.,pp.xiv.fi.).Itishopedthatthe indexhasmadethempronounceable.Astotheau- thor'sindebtednesstoothersinthepreparationofthis volume,hemayalsorefertohisacknowledgmentsin thesamepreface,aswellasinthatofhislargerhistory acknowledgmentswhichareequallytrueofthis brieferwork.Hewouldalsoexpresshisappreciation ofthepatienceshownhimbybotheditorandpub- lisher,whohavewaitedlongforthemanuscriptofthis book,delayedasithasbeenbydistanttravelsand heavytasks,andthefactthatthemassofthematerial collectedprovedtoolargetocondenseatonceintothis volume,thusresultingintheproductionofthelarger historyfirst.Evenso,thepresentvolumeislargerthan itsfellowsintheseries,andtheauthorgreatlyappre- ciatestheindulgenceofthepublishersinthisrespect. Inconclusion,tothestudentoftheOldTestament,bywhomitwillbechieflyused,theauthorwouldexpress thehopethatthelittlebookmaycontributesomewhat towardawiderrecognitionofthefact,thattheriseand development,thecultureandcareer,oftheHebrew nationwereasvitallyconditionedandasdeeplyinflu- encedbysurroundingcivilizations,asmodernhistorical sciencehasshowntobethefactwitheveryotherpeo- ple,ancientormodern.

JAMESHENRYBREASTED.

BORDIQHERA,ITALY,March2,1908.

CONTENTS

PARTI

INTRODUCTION

I.THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS.

II.PRELIMINARYSURVEY,CHRONOLOG

III.EARLIESTEGYPT

PARTII

THEOLDKINGDOM

IV.EARLYRELIGION

V.THEOLDKINGDOM:GOVERNMENT,

VI.THEPYRAMIDBUILDERS...

VII.THESIXTHDYNASTY:THEDECLINI

KINGDOM

PARTIII

THEMIDDLEKINGDOM:THEFEUDALAGE

VIII.THEDECLINEOFTHENORTHANDTHERISEOF

THEBES:

IX.THEMIDDLEKINGDOMORTHEFEUDALAGE

STATE,SOCIETYANDRELIGION....

X.THETWELFTHDYNASTY

iiCONTENTS

PARTIV

THEHYKSOS:THERISEOFTHEEMPIRE

XI.THEFALLOFTHEMIDDLEKINGDOM.THE

XII.THEEXPULSIONOFTHEHYKSOS

UMPHOFTHEBES....

PARTV

THEEMPIRE:FIRSTPERIOD

XIII.THENEWSTATE:SOCIETYANDRELIGION

XIV.THECONSOLIDATIONOFTHEKINGDO

XV.THEFEUDOFTHETHUTM

OFQUEENHATSHEPS

XVI.THECONSOLIDATIONOF11

OFTHUTMOSEin..

XVII.THEEMPIREATITSHEI

XVIII.THERELIGIOUSREVOLUT:

XIX.THEFALLOFIKHNATON

OFTHEEMPIRE.

PARTVI

THEEMPIRE:SECONDPERIOD

XX.THETRIUMPHOFAMONANDTHEREORGANIZA-

TIONOFTHEEMPIRE2

XXI.THEWARSOFRAMSESII3

XXII.THEEMPJREOFRAMSESII3

XXIII.THEFINALDECLINEOFTHEEMPIRE:MERNEP-

TAHANDRAMSESIII3

CONTENTSxiii

PARTVII

THEDECADENCEOFANCIENTEGYPT

XXIV.THEFALLOPTHEEMPIRE347

XXV.PRIESTSANDMERCENARIES:THESUPREMACYOF

THELIBYANS357

XXVI.THEETHIOPIANSUPREMACYANDTHETRIUMPH

OFASSYRIA367

PARTVIII

THERESTORATIONANDTHEEND

XXVII.THERESTORATION387

XXVIII.THEFINALSTRUGGLES:BABYLONANDPERSIA404

CHRONOLOGICALSUMMARY419

ASELECTEDBIB

INDEXOFNAM;

MAPSANDPLANS

MAPI.EGYPTANI

MAPII.THEASIA

MAPIII.THEBESA

PLANIV.THETEMI

THEBATTLEOFKADESH,SECONDSTAC

MAPV.GENERALMAPOFEGYPTA

PARTI

INTRODUCTION

THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS

1.THErootsofmoderncivilizationare

deeplyinthehighlyelaboratelifeofthosenations whichroseintopoweroversixthousandyearsago,in thebasinofthe(easternMediterranean,andthead- jacentregionsontheeastofit.HadtheEuphrates finallyfounditswayintotheMediterranean,toward which,indeed,itseemstohavestarted,boththeearly civilizations,towhichwerefer,mightthenhavebeen includedintheMediterraneanbasin.Asitis,the sceneofearlyorientalhistorydoesnotfallentirely withinthatbasin,butmustbedesignatedastheeast- ernMediterraneanregion.Itliesinthemidstofthe vastdesertplateau,which,beginningattheAtlantic, extendseastwardacrosstheentirenorthernendof

Africa,andcontinuingbeyondthedepressionofthe

RedSea,passesnortheastward,withsomeinterrup-

tions,farintotheheartofAsia.Approachingit,the onefromthesouthandtheotherfromthenorth,two greatrivervalleystraversethisdesert;inAsia,the

Tigro-Euphratesvalley;inAfricathatoftheNile.It

isinthesetwovalleysthatthecareerofmanmaybe tracedfromtheriseofEuropeancivilizationbacktoa remoteragethananywhereelseonearth;anditis fromthesetwocradlesofthehumanracethatthein- fluenceswhichemanatedfromtheirhighlydeveloped

4INTRODUCTION

butdifferingcultures,cannowbemoreandmore clearlytracedaswediscernthemconverginguponthe earlycivilizationofAsiaMinorandsouthernEurope.

2.TheNile,whichcreatedthevalleyhomeofthe

earlyEgyptians,risesthreedegreessouthoftheequa- tor,andflowingintotheMediterraneanatoverthirty- oneandahalfdegreesnorthlatitude,itattainsalength ofsomefourthousandmilesandvieswiththegreatest riversoftheworldinlength,ifnotinvolume.Inits uppercoursetheriver,emergingfromthelakesof equatorialAfrica,isknownastheWhiteNile.Just southofnorthlatitudesixteenatKhartum,about thirteenhundredandfiftymilesfromthesea,itre- ceivesfromtheeastanaffluentknownastheBlue

Nile,whichisaconsiderablemountaintorrent,rising

intheloftyhighlandsofAbyssinia.Onehundredand fortymilesbelowtheunionofthetwoNilesthestream isjoinedbyitsonlyothertributary,theAtbara,which isafreshetnotunliketheBlueNile.ItisatKhar- tum,orjustbelowit,thattheriverentersthetable- landofNubiansandstone,underlyingtheGreatSa- hara.Hereitwindsonitstortuouscoursebetween thedeserthills,whereitreturnsuponitself,often flowingduesouth,untilafterithasfinallypushed throughtothenorth,itscoursedescribesavastS.

3.Insixdifferentplacesthroughoutthisregionthe

currenthashithertofailedtoerodeaperfectchannel throughthestubbornstone,andtheseextendedinter- ruptions,wheretherocksarepiledinscatteredand irregularmassesinthestream,areknownasthecata- ractsoftheNile;althoughthereisnogreatandsud- denfallsuchasthatofourcataractatNiagara.These rocksinterferewithnavigationmostseriouslyinthe regionofthesecondandfourthcataracts;otherwise

THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS5

theriverisnavigablealmostthroughoutitsentire course.AtElephantineitpassesthegranitebarrier whichtherethrustsupitsroughshoulder,formingthe firstcataract,andthenceemergesuponanunob- structedcoursetothesea.

4.Itisthevalleybelowthefirstcataractwhichcon-

stitutedEgyptproper.Thereasonforthechange whichheregivestheriverafreecourseisthedisap- pearanceofthesandstone,sixty-eightmilesbelowthe cataract,atEdfu,wherethenummuliticlimestone whichformsthenortherndesertplateau,offersthe streamaneasiertaskintheerosionofitsbed.Ithas thusproducedavastcanonortrenchcutacrossthe easternendoftheSaharatothenorthernsea.From clifftocliff,thevalleyvariesinwidth,fromtenor twelve,tosomethirty-onemiles.Thefloorofthe canoniscoveredwithblack,alluvialdeposits,through whichtheriverwindsnorthward.Itcutsadeep channelthroughthealluvium,flowingwithaspeedof aboutthreemilesanhour;inwidthitonlytwiceat- tainsamaximumofelevenhundredyards.Onthe westtheBahrYusufasecond,minorchannelsome twohundredmileslong,leavesthemainstreamnear

SiutandflowsintotheFayum.Inantiquityitflowed

thenceintoacanalknownasthe"North,"which passednorthwardwestofMemphisandreachedthe seabythesiteoflaterAlexandria(BAR,iv224,1.8, note).Alittleoverahundredmilesfromtheseathe mainstreamentersthebroadtriangle,withapexat thesouth,whichtheGreekssographicallycalledthe "Delta."Thisisofcourseabayofprehistoricages, whichhasbeengraduallyfilledupbytheriver.The streamoncedividedatthispointandreachedthesea throughsevenmouths,butinmoderntimesthereare

6INTRODUCTION

buttwomainbranches,stragglingthroughtheDelta andpiercingthecoast-lineoneithersideofthemid- dle.ThewesternbranchiscalledtheRosettamouth; theeasternthatofDamiette.

5.ThedepositswhichhaveformedtheDelta,are

verydeep,andhaveslowlyrisenoverthesitesofthe manyancientcitieswhichonceflourishedthere.The oldswampswhichoncemusthaverenderedtheregions ofthenorthernDeltaavastmorass,havebeengradu- allyfilledup,andthefringeofmarshespushedfurther out.Theyundoubtedlyoccupiedinantiquityamuch largerproportionoftheDeltathantheydonow.In thevalleyabove,thedepthofthesoilvariesfromthirty- threetothirty-eightfeet,andsometimesreachesa maximumoftenmilesinwidth.Thecultivablearea thusformed,betweenthecataractandthesea,isless thantenthousandsquaremilesinextent,beingroughly equaltotheareaofthestateofMaryland,orabout tenpercent,lessthanthatofBelgium.Thecliffson eitherhandareusuallybutafewhundredfeetin height,buthereandtheretheyriseintoalmostmoun- tainsofathousandfeet.Theyareofcourseflanked bythedesertsthroughwhichtheNilehascutitsway.OnthewesttheLibyanDesertorthegreatSahara rollsinillimitable,desolatehillsofsand,graveland rock,fromsixhundredandfiftytoathousandfeet abovetheNile.Itsotherwisewaterlessexpanseis brokenonlybyanirregularlineofoases,orwatered depressions,roughlyparallelwiththeriveranddoubt- lessowingtheirspringsandwellstoinfiltrationofthe

Nilewaters.Thelargestofthesedepressionsissitua-

atedsoclosetothevalleythattherockwallwhichonce separatedthemhasbrokendown,producingthefertile

Fayum,wateredbytheBahrYusuf.Otherwisethe

THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS7

westerndesertheldnoeconomicresourcesfortheuse oftheearlyNile-dwellers.TheeasternorArabian

Desertissomewhatlessinhospitable,andcapableof

yieldingascantysubsistencetowanderingtribesof

Ababdeh.Depositsofalabasterandextensivemasses

ofvariousfine,hardigneousrocksledtotheexploita- tionofquarriesherealso,whiletheRedSeaharbours couldofcoursebereachedonlybytraversingthis desert,throughwhichestablishedroutesthitherwere earlytraced.Furthernorthsimilarmineralresources ledtoanacquaintancewiththepeninsulaofSinaiand itsdesertregions,ataveryremotedate.

6.Thesituationaffordedbythisnarrowvalleywas

oneofunusualisolation;oneitherhandvastdesert wastes,onthenorththeharbourlesscoast-lineofthe

Delta,andonthesouththerockybarriersofsuccessive

cataracts,preventingfusionwiththepeoplesofinner

Africa.Itwaschieflyatthetwonortherncornersof

theDelta,thatoutsideinfluencesandforeignelements whichwerealwayssiftingintotheNilevalley,gained accesstothecountry.Throughtheeasterncornerit wastheprehistoricSemiticpopulationofneighbouring

Asia,whoforcedtheirwayinacrossthedangerous

interveningdeserts;whiletheLibyanraces,ofpossi- blyEuropeanorigin,foundentranceatthewestern corner.Theproductsofthesouthalso,inspiteof thecataracts,filteredineverincreasingvolumeinto theregionsofthelowerriverandthelowerendofthe firstcataractbecameatradingpost,everafterknown as"Suan"(Assuan)or"market,"wherethenegro tradersofthesouthmetthoseofEgypt.Theupper

Nilethusgraduallybecamearegularavenueofcom-

mercewiththeSudan.Thenaturalboundariesof Egypt,however,alwayspresentedsufficientlyeffective

8INTRODUCTION

barrierstowould-beinvaders,toenablethenatives slowlytoassimilatethenewcomers,withoutbeing displaced.

7.Itwillbeevidentthattheremarkableshapeof

thecountrymustpowerfullyinfluenceitspoliticalde- velopment.ExceptintheDeltaitwasbutanarrow line,somesevenhundredandfiftymileslong.Strag- glingitsslenderlengthalongtheriver,andsprawling outintotheDelta,ittotallylackedthecompactness necessarytostablepoliticalorganization.Agiven localityhasneighboursononlytwosides,northand south,andthesetheirshortestboundaries;localfeeling wasstrong,localdifferenceswerepersistent,anda manoftheDeltacouldhardlyunderstandthespeech ofamanofthefirstcataractregion.Itwasonlythe easeofcommunicationaffordedbytheriverwhichin anydegreeneutralizedtheeffectofthecountry'sre- markablelength.

8.Thewealthofcommercewhichtheriverserved

tocarry,itwasequallyinstrumentalinproducing.

Whiletheclimateofthecountryisnotrainless,yetthe

rareshowersofthesouth,oftenseparatedbyintervals ofyears,andeventhemorefrequentrainsoftheDelta, aretotallyinsufficienttomaintaintheprocessesof agriculture.ThemarvellousproductivityoftheEgyp- tiansoilisduetotheannualinundationoftheriver, whichiscausedbythemeltingofthesnows,andbythe springrainsatthesourcesoftheBlueNile.Freighted withtherichloamoftheAbyssinianhighlands,the rushingwatersofthespringfreshethurrydownthe

Nubianvalley,andaslightriseisdiscernibleatthe

firstcataractintheearlypartofJune.Theflood swellsrapidlyandsteadily,andalthoughtheincrease isusuallyinterruptedfornearlyamonthfromtheend

THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS9

ofSeptemberon,itisusuallyresumedagain,andthe maximumlevelcontinuesuntiltheendofOctoberor intoNovember.Thewatersintheregionofthefirst cataractarethennearlyfiftyfeethigherthanatlow water;whileatCairotheriseisabouthalfthatatthe cataract.Avastandelaboratesystemofirrigation canalsandreservoirsfirstreceivestheflood,whichis thenallowedtoescapeintothefieldsasneeded.Here itrestslongenoughtodeposititsburdenofrich,black earthfromtheupperreachesoftheBlueNile.At suchtimestheappearanceofthecountryispicturesque intheextreme,theglisteningsurfaceofthewatersbeing dottedhereandtherebythevividgreenofthewaving palmgroves,whichmarkthevillages,nowaccessible onlyalongthedykesbelongingtotheirrigationsystem.

Thusyearbyyear,thesoilwhichwouldotherwisebe-

comeimpoverishedintheelementsnecessarytothe productionofsuchprodigiousharvests,isinvariably replenishedwithfreshresources.

9.Astheriversinksbelowthelevelofthefields

again,itisnecessarytoraisethewaterfromthecanals byartificialmeans,inordertocarryontheconstant irrigationofthegrowingcropsintheoutlyingfields, whicharetoohightobelongerrefreshedbyabsorption fromtheriver.Thusagenialandgenerous,butex- actingsoil,demandedforitscultivationthedevelop-mentofahighdegreeofskillinthemanipulationof thelife-givingwaters,andataveryearlydaythemen oftheNilevalleyhadattainedasurprisingcommandof thecomplicatedproblemsinvolvedintheproper utilizationoftheriver.IfEgyptbecamethemother ofthemechanicalarts,theriverwillhavebeenoneof thechiefnaturalforcestowhichthisfactwasdue.

Withsuchnaturalassetsasthese,aneverreplenisfied

10INTRODUCTION

soil,andalmostunfailingwatersforitsrefreshment, thewealthofEgyptcouldnotbutbechieflyagricul- tural,afacttowhichweshalloftenrecur.Such opulentfertilityofcoursesupportedalargepopula- tioninRomantimessomesevenmillionsouls(Dio- dorusI,31)whileinourowndayitmaintainsover ninemillion,adensityofpopulationfarsurpassing thattobefoundanywhereinEurope.Theother naturalresourcesofthevalleyweshallbebetterable totraceaswefollowtheirexploitationinthecourseof thehistoricaldevelopment.

10.InclimateEgyptisaveritableparadise,drawing

toitsshoresatthepresentdayaneverincreasing numberofwinterguests.TheairofEgyptisessen- tiallythatofthedesertswithinwhichitlies,andsuch isitspurityanddrynessthatevenanexcessivedegree ofheatoccasionsbutslightdiscomfort,owingtothe factthatthemoistureofthebodyisdriedupalmost asfastasitisexhaled.Themeantemperatureofthe

Deltainwinteris56Fahrenheitandinthevalley

aboveitistendegreeshigher.Insummerthemean intheDeltais83;andalthoughthesummertem- peratureinthevalleyissometimesashighas122,the airisfarfromtheoppressivenessaccompanyingthe samedegreeofheatinotherlands.Thenightsevenin summerarealwayscool,andthevastexpansesofvege- tationappreciablyreducethetemperature.Inwinter justbeforedawntheextremecoldissurprising,as contrastedwiththegenialwarmthofmid-dayatthe sameseason.Totheabsenceofrainwehavealready adverted.TherareshowersofupperEgyptoccur onlywhencyclonicdisturbancesinthesouthern

MediterraneanornorthernSaharaforceundischarged

cloudsintotheNilevalleyfromthewest;fromthe

THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANSU

easttheycannotreachthevalley,owingtothehigh mountainridgealongtheRedSea,whichforcesthem upwardanddischargesthem.ThelowerDelta,how- ever,fallswithinthezoneofthenorthernrainyseason.

Inspiteofthewideextentofmarshyground,leftstag-

natingbytheinundation,thedryairsofthedesert, blowingconstantlyacrossthevalley,quicklydrythe soil,andthereisneveranymalarialinfectioninupper

Egypt.EveninthevastmorassoftheDelta,malaria

ispracticallyunknown.Thus,lyingjustoutsideof thetropics,Egyptenjoyedamildclimateofunsur- passedsalubrity,devoidoftheharshnessofanorthern winter,butatthesametimesufficientlycooltoescape thoseenervatinginfluencesinherentintropicalcondi- tions.

11.Theprospectofthiscontractedvalleyspreadout

beforetheNiledweller,wasinantiquity,asitisto-day somewhatmonotonous.ThelevelNilebottoms,the giftoftheriver,cladinrichgreen,shutinoneither handbytheyellowcliffs,areunrelievedbyanyeleva- tionsorbyanyforests,savetheoccasionalgrovesof gracefulpalms,whichfringetheriverbanksorshade thevillagesofsombremudhuts,withnowandthena sycamore,atamariskoranacacia.Anetworkof irrigationcanalstraversesthecountryineverydirec- tionlikeavastarterialsystem.Thesandsofthe desolatewasteswhichliebehindthecanonwalls,drift inathwartthecliffs,andofteninvadethegreenfields sothatonemaystandwithonefootintheverdureof thevalley,andtheotherinthedesertsand.Thus sharplydefinedwastheEgyptian'sworld:adeepand narrowriver-valleyofunparalleledfertility,winding betweenlifelessdeserts,furnishingaremarkableen- vironment,nottobefoundelsewhereinalltheworld.

12INTRODUCTION

Suchsurroundingsreactedpowerfullyuponthemind

andthoughtoftheEgyptian,conditioninganddeter- mininghisideaoftheworldandhisnotionofthe mysteriouspowerswhichruledit.

12.Suchwasinbriefthesceneinwhichdeveloped

thepeopleoftheNile,whoseculturedominatedthe basinoftheeasternMediterraneanintheagewhen

Europewasemergingintothesecondarystagesof

civilization,andcomingintointimatecontactwiththe cultureoftheearlyeast.Nowhereonearthhavethe witnessesofagreat,butnowextinctcivilization,been soplentifullypreservedasalongthebanksoftheNile.

EvenintheDelta,wherethestormsofwarbeatmore

fiercelythaninthevalleyabove,andwheretheslow accumulationsfromtheyearlyfloodhavegradually entombedthem,thesplendidcitiesofthePharaohs haveleftgreatstretchescumberedwithenormous blocksofgranite,limestoneandsandstone,shattered obelisks,andmassivepylonbases,toproclaimthe wealthandpowerofforgottenages;whileanever growingmultitudeofmodernvisitorsaredrawntothe uppervalleybythecolossalruinsthatgreetthewon- deringtravelleralmostateverybendinthestream.

Nowhereelseintheancientworldweresuchmassive

stonebuildingserected,andnowhereelsehasadry atmosphere,coupledwithanalmostcompleteabsence ofrain,permittedthesurvivalofsuchawealthofthe bestandhighestinthelifeofanancientpeople,insofar asthatlifefoundexpressioninmaterialform.Inthe plenitudeofitssplendour,muchofitthussurvived intotheclassicageofEuropeancivilization,andhence itwas,thatasEgyptwasgraduallyoverpoweredand absorbedbythewesternworld,thecurrentsoflife fromwestandeastcommingledhere,astheyhave

THELANDOFTHEEGYPTIANS13

neverdoneelsewhere.BothintheNilevalleyand beyondit,thewestthusfeltthefullimpactofEgyptian civilizationformanycenturies,andgainedfromitall thatitsmanifoldculturehadtocontribute.Thecareer whichmadeEgyptsorichaheritageofalienpeoples, andalegacysovaluabletoalllaterages,weshall endeavourtotraceintheensuingchapters.

13.ARAPIDsurveyofthepurelyexternalfeatures

whichservetodemarkthegreatepochsinthecareerof theNilevalleypeople,willenableusthemoreintelli- gentlytostudythoseepochsindetail,aswemeetthem inthecourseofourprogress.Insuchasurvey,we sweepoureyesdownaperiodoffourthousandyears ofhumanhistory,fromatimewhentheonlyciviliza- tionknowninthebasinoftheMediterraneanisslowly dawningamongaprimitivepeopleontheshoresofthe

Nile.Wecancastbutabriefglanceattheoutward

eventswhichcharacterizedeachgreatperiod,espe- ciallynotinghowforeignpeoplesaregraduallydrawn withinthecircleofEgyptianintercoursefromageto age,andreciprocalinfluencesensue;untilinthethir- teenthcenturyB.c.thepeoplesofsouthernEurope, longdiscernibleintheirmaterialcivilization,emerge inthewrittendocumentsofEgyptforthefirsttimein history.ItwasthenthatthefortunesofthePharaohs begantodecline,andasthecivilizationandpower, firstoftheEastandthenofclassicEurope,slowly developed,Egyptwasfinallysubmergedinthegreat worldofMediterraneanpowers,firstdominatedby

Persia,andthenbyGreeceandRome.

14.ThecareeroftheraceswhichpeopledtheNile

valleyfallsintoaseriesofmoreorlessclearlymarked

PRELIMINARYSURVEY15

epochs,eachofwhichisrooteddeeplyinthatwhich precededit,anditselfcontainsthegermsofthatwhich istofollow.Amoreorlessarbitraryandartificialbut convenientsubdivisionoftheseepochs,beginningwith thehistoricage,isfurnishedbytheso-calleddynasties ofManetho.ThisnativehistorianofEgypt,apriest ofSebennytos,whoflourishedunderPtolemyI(305-

285B.c.),wroteahistoryofhiscountryintheGreek

language.Theworkhasperished,andweonlyknow itinanepitomebyJuliusAfricanusandEusebius,and extractsbyJosephus.Thevalueoftheworkwas slight,asitwasbuiltuponfolk-talesandpopular traditionsoftheearlykings.Manethodividedthe longsuccessionofPharaohs,asknowntohim,into thirtyroyalhousesordynasties,andalthoughweknow thatmanyofhisdivisionsarearbitrary,andthatthere wasmanyadynasticchangewhereheindicatesnone, yethisdynastiesdividethekingsintoconvenient groups,whichhavesolongbeenemployedinmodern studyofEgyptianhistory,thatitisnowimpossibleto dispensewiththem.

15.Afteranarchaicageofprimitivecivilization,and

aperiodofsmallandlocalkingdoms,thevariouscen- tresofcivilizationontheNilegraduallycoalescedinto twokingdoms:onecomprisingthevalleydowntothe

Delta;andtheothermadeupoftheDeltaitself.In

theDelta,civilizationrapidlyadvanced,andthecalen- daryearof365dayswasintroducedin4241B.c.,the earliestfixeddateinthehistoryoftheworldasknown tous(MC,38ff.,BAR,I,44-45).Alongdevelop- ment,asthe"TwoLands,"whichlefttheirimprint foreverafteronthecivilizationoflatercenturies,pre- cededaunitedEgypt,whichemergeduponourhis- torichorizonattheconsolidationofthetwokingdoms

16INTRODUCTION

intoonenationunderMenesabout3400B.c.His accessionmarksthebeginningofthedynasties,andthe preceding,earliestperiodmaybeconvenientlydesig- natedasthepredynasticage.Intheexcavationsof thelasttwelveyears(since1895)thepredynasticciv- ilizationhasbeengraduallyrevealedinmaterialdocu- mentsexhibitingthevariousstagesintheslowevolu- tionwhichatlastproducedthedynasticculture.

16.Auniformgovernmentofthewholecountrywas

thesecretofoverfourcenturiesofprosperityunderthe descendantsofMenesatThinis,nearAbydos,closeto thegreatbendoftheNilebelowThebes,andprobably alsoatornearlaterMemphis.Theremarkablede- velopmentofthesefourcenturiesinmaterialciviliza- tionledtothesplendourandpowerofthefirstgreat epochofEgyptianhistory,theOldKingdom.The seatofgovernmentwasatMemphis,wherefourroyal houses,theThird,Fourth,FifthandSixthDynasties, ruledinsuccessionforfivehundredyears(2980-2475

B.c.).Artandmechanicsreachedalevelofunpre-

cedentedexcellenceneverlatersurpassed,whilegovern- mentandadministrationhadneverbeforebeenso highlydeveloped.Foreignenterprisepassedfarbe- yondthelimitsofthekingdom;theminesofSinai, alreadyoperatedintheFirstDynasty,werevigourously exploited;tradeinEgyptianbottomsreachedthecoast ofPhoeniciaandtheIslandsoftheNorth,whileinthe

South,thePharaoh'sfleetspenetratedtotheSomali

coast(Punt)ontheRedSea;andinNubiahisenvoys werestrongenoughtoexercisealoosesovereigntyover thelowercountry,andbytirelessexpeditionstokeep openthetraderoutesleadingtotheSudan.Inthe

SixthDynasty(2625-2475B.c.)thelocalgovernorsof

thecentraladministration,whohadalreadygained

PRELIMINARYSURVEY17

hereditaryholdupontheirofficesintheFifthDynasty (2750-2625B.c.),wereabletoassertthemselvesas landedbaronsandprinces,nolongermerefunction- ariesofthecrown.Theythuspreparedthewayfor anageoffeudalism.

17.Thegrowingpowerofthenewlandednobility

finallycausedthefallofthePharaonichouse,andat thecloseoftheSixthDynasty,about2475B.c.,the supremacyofMemphiswaned.Intheinternalcon- fusionwhichfollowed,wecandiscernnothingof

Manetho'sephemeralSeventhandEighthDynasties

atMemphis,whichlastednotmorethanthirtyyears; butwiththeNinthandTenthDynastiesthenoblesof

Heracleopolisgainedthethrone,whichwasoccupied

byeighteensuccessivekingsoftheline.Itisnowthat

Thebesfirstappearsastheseatofapowerfulfamily

ofprinces,bywhomtheHeracleopolitansandthe powerofthenortharegraduallyovercometillthe

Southtriumphs.Theexactlapseoftimefromthefall

oftheOldKingdomtothetriumphoftheSouthisat presentindeterminable,butitmaybeestimated roughlyattwohundredandseventy-fivetothree hundredyears,withamarginofuncertaintyofpos- siblyacenturyeitherway(BAR,I,53).

18.Withtherestorationofpeaceandorderunder

theThebanprincesoftheEleventhDynastyabout

2160B.c.,theissueofthetendenciesalreadydis-

cernibleatthecloseoftheOldKingdomisclearly visible.Throughoutthelandthelocalprincesand baronsarefirmlyseatedintheirdomains,andwith thesehereditaryfeudatoriesthePharaohmustnow reckon.Thesystemwasnotfullydevelopeduntilthe adventofasecondThebanfamily,theTwelfthDy- nasty,thefounderofwhich,AmenemhetI,probably

18INTRODUCTION

usurpedthethrone.Forovertwohundredyears (2000-1788B.c.)thispowerfullineofkingsruleda feudalstate.Thisfeudalageistheclassicperiodof

Egyptianhistory.Literatureflourished,theorthog-

raphyofthelanguagewasforthefirsttimeregulated, poetryhadalreadyreachedahighlyartisticstructure, theearliestknownliteratureofentertainmentwaspro- duced,sculptureandarchitecturewererichandpro- lific,andtheindustrialartssurpassedallprevious attainments.Theinternalresourcesofthecountry wereelaboratelydeveloped,especiallybycloseatten- tiontotheNileandtheinundation.Enormous hydraulicworksreclaimedlargetractsofcultivable domainintheFayum,inthevicinityofwhichthekings oftheTwelfthDynasty,theAmenemhetsandthe

Sesostrises,lived.Abroadtheexploitationofthe

minesinSinaiwasnowcarriedonbytheconstant labourofpermanentcoloniesthere,withtemples,for- tificationsandreservoirsforthewatersupply.A plunderingcampaignwascarriedintoSyria,tradeand intercoursewithitsSemitictribeswereconstant,and aninterchangeofcommoditieswiththeearlyMycenaean centresofcivilizationinthenorthernMediterranean isevident.TrafficwithPuntandthesoutherncoasts oftheRedSeacontinued,whileinNubiathecountry betweenthefirstandsecondcataracts,looselycon- trolledintheSixthDynasty,wasnowconqueredand heldtributarybythePharaoh,sothatthegoldmines ontheeastofitwereaconstantresourceofhistreasury.

19.ThefalloftheTwelfthDynastyin1788B.c.

wasfollowedbyasecondperiodofdisorganizationand obscurity,asthefeudatoriesstruggledforthecrown.

Afterpossiblyacenturyofsuchinternalconflict,the

countrywasenteredandappropriatedbyalineof

PRELIMINARYSURVEY19

rulersfromAsia,whohadseeminglyalreadygaineda widedominionthere.Theseforeignusurpers,now knownastheHyksos,afterManetho'sdesignationof them,maintainedthemselvesforperhapsacentury.

TheirresidencewasatAvarisintheeasternDelta,

andatleastduringthelaterpartoftheirsupremacy, theEgyptiannoblesoftheSouthsucceededingaining moreorlessindependence.Finallytheheadofa

Thebanfamilyboldlyproclaimedhimselfking,andin

thecourseofsomeyearstheseThebanprincessuc- ceededinexpellingtheHyksosfromthecountry,and drivingthembackfromtheAsiaticfrontierintoSyria.

20.ItwasundertheHyksosandinthestrugglewith

themthattheconservatismofmillenniawasbroken upintheNilevalley.TheEgyptianslearnedaggres- sivewarforthefirsttime,andintroducedawellor- ganizedmilitarysystem,includingchariotry,whichthe importationofthehorsebytheHyksosnowenabled themtodo.Egyptwastransformedintoamilitary empire.InthestrugglewiththeHyksosandwith eachother,theoldfeudalfamiliesperished,orwere absorbedamongthepartisansofthedominantTheban family,fromwhichtheimperiallinesprang.The greatPharaohsoftheEighteenthDynastythusbe- cameemperors,conqueringandrulingfromnorthern

SyriaandtheupperEuphrates,tothefourthcataract

oftheNileonthesouth.Amidunprecedentedwealth andsplendour,theyruledtheirvastdominions,which theygraduallyweldedtogetherintoafairlystable empire,thefirstknownintheearlyworld.Thebes grewintoagreatmetropolis,theearliestmonumental city.ExtensivetraderelationswiththeEastandthe

Mediterraneanworlddeveloped;Mycenaeanproducts

werecommoninEgypt,andEgyptianinfluencesare

20INTRODUCTION

clearlydiscernibleinMycenaeanart.Fortwohundred andthirtyyears(1580-1350B.c.)theEmpirenour- ished,butwaswreckedatlastbyacombinationof adverseinfluencesbothwithinandwithout.Arelig- iousrevolutionbytheyoungandgiftedkingIkhnaton, causedaninternalconvulsionsuchasthecountryhad neverbeforeexperienced;whiletheempireinthe northgraduallydisintegratedundertheaggressionsof theHittites,whopushedinfromAsiaMinor.Atthe sametimeinboththenorthernandsouthernAsiatic dominionsofthePharaoh,anoverflowofBeduinim- migration,amongwhichwereundoubtedlysomeofthe tribeswholatercoalescedwiththeIsraelites,aggravated thedanger,andtogetherwiththepersistentadvanceof theHittites,finallyresultedinthecompletedissolution oftheAsiaticempireofEgypt,downtotheveryfrontier ofthenortheasternDelta.Meanwhiletheinternal disordershadcausedthefalloftheEighteenthDy- nasty,aneventwhichterminatedthefirstPeriodof theEmpire(1350B.c.).

21.Harmhab,oneoftheablecommandersunder

thefallendynasty,survivedthecrisisandfinallyseized thethrone.Underhisvigorousrulethedisorganized nationwasgraduallyrestoredtoorder,andhissucces- sorsoftheNineteenthDynasty(1350-1205B.c.)were abletobegintherecoveryofthelostempireinAsia.

ButtheHittitesweretoofirmlyentrenchedinSyria

toyieldtotheEgyptianonset.TheassaultsofSetiI, andhalfagenerationofpersistentcampaigningunder

RamsesII,failedtopushthenorthernfrontierofthe

EmpirefarbeyondthelimitsofPalestine.Hereit

remainedandSyriawasneverpermanentlyrecovered.

SemiticinfluencesnowpowerfullyaffectedEgypt.At

thisjuncturethepeoplesofsouthernEuropeemerge

PRELIMINARYSURVEY21

forthefirsttimeuponthearenaoforientalhistoryand togetherwithLibyanhordes,threatentooverwhelm theDeltafromthewest.Theywerenevertheless beatenbackbyMerneptah.Afteranotherperiodof internalconfusionandusurpation,duringwhichthe

NineteenthDynastyfell(1205B.c.),RamsesIII,

whosefather,SetnakhtfoundedtheTwentiethDy- nasty(1200-1090B.c.),wasabletomaintainthe

Empireatthesamelimits,againsttheinvasionsof

restlessnortherntribes,whocrushedtheHittitepower; andalsoagainstrepeatedimmigrationsoftheLibyans.

Withhisdeath(1167B.c.)theEmpire,withtheex-

ceptionofNubia,whichwasstillheld,rapidlyfellto pieces.Thus,aboutthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury

B.c.theSecondPeriodoftheimperialageclosedwith

thetotaldissolutionoftheAsiaticdominions.

22.UnderaseriesofweakRamessids,thecountry

rapidlydeclinedandfellapreyfirsttothepowerful highpriestsofAmon,whowereobligedalmostimme- diatelytoyieldtostrongerRamessidrivalsintheDelta atTanis,formingtheTwenty-FirstDynasty(1090-

945B.c.).BythemiddleofthetenthcenturyB.c.

themercenarychiefs,whosefollowershadformedthe armiesofthesecondimperialperiod,hadfounded powerfulfamiliesintheDeltacities,andamongthese theLibyanswerenowsupreme.SheshonkI,a

Libyanmercenarycommander,gainedthethroneas

thefounderoftheTwenty-secondDynastyin945B.c. andthecountryenjoyedtransientprosperity,while

SheshonkevenattemptedtherecoveryofPalestine.

Butthefamilywasunabletocontroltheturbulent

mercenarylords,nowestablishedasdynastsinthe largerDeltatowns,andthecountrygraduallyrelapsed intoaseriesofmilitaryprincipalitiesinconstantwar-

22INTRODUCTION

farewitheachother.ThroughtheentireLibyan periodoftheTwenty-second,Twenty-thirdand

Twenty-fourthDynasties(945-712B.c.)theun-

happynationgroanedundersuchmisrule,constantly sufferingeconomicdeterioration.

23.Nubiahadnowdetacheditselfandadynastyof

kings,probablyofThebanoriginhadarisenatNapata, belowtheFourthCataract.TheseEgyptianrulersof thenewNubiankingdomnowinvadedEgypt,and althoughresidingatNapata,maintainedtheirsover- eigntyinEgyptwithvaryingfortunefortwogenera- tions(722-663B.c.)-Buttheywereunabletosup- pressandexterminatethelocaldynasts,whoruledon, whileacknowledgingthesuzeraintyoftheNubian overlord.Itwasinthemidstoftheseconflictsbetween theNubiandynastyandthemercenarylordsofLower

Egypt,thattheAssyriansfinallyenteredtheDelta,

subduedthecountryandplaceditundertribute(670-

660B.c.)-AtthisjuncturePsamtikI,anable

dynastofSais,inthewesternDelta,finallysucceeded inoverthrowinghisrivals,expelledtheNinevitegarri- sons,andastheNubianshadalreadybeenforced outofthecountrybytheAssyrians,hewasableto foundapowerfuldynasty,andusherintheRestoration.

Hisaccessionfellin663B.c.,andtheentireperiodof

nearlyfivehundredyearsfromthefinaldissolutionof theEmpireabout1150tothedawnoftheRestoration in663B.c.,maybeconvenientlydesignatedthe

Decadence.After1100B.c.theDecadencemaybe

convenientlydividedintotheTanite-AmonitePeriod (1090-945B.c.).theLibyanPeriod(945-712B.c.), theEthiopianPeriod(722^-663B.c.),andtheAssyrian

Period,whichiscontemporarywiththelastyearsof

theEthiopianPeriod.

PRELIMINARYSURVEY23

24.OftheRestoration,likeallthoseepochsinwhich

theseatofpowerwasintheDelta,wherealmostall monumentshaveperished,welearnverylittlefrom nativesources;andalltoolittlealsofromHerodotus andlaterGreekvisitorsintheNilevalley.Itwas outwardlyanageofpowerandsplendour,inwhich thenativepartyendeavouredtorestoretheoldglories oftheclassicagebeforetheEmpire;whilethekings dependinguponGreekmercenaries,weremodern politicians,employingthemethodsofthenewGreek world,minglingintheworld-politicsoftheirageand showinglittlesympathywiththearchaizingtendency.

ButtheircombinationsfailedtosaveEgyptfromthe

ambitionofPersia,anditshistoryundernativedy- nasties,withunimportantexceptions,wasconcluded withtheconquestofthecountrybyCambysesin525 B.c.

25.Such,inmechanicalreview,werethepurely

externaleventswhichmarkedthesuccessiveepochsof

Egypt'shistoryasanindependentnation.Withtheir

dates,theseepochsmaybesummarizedthus:

IntroductionoftheCalendar,4241B.c.

PredynasticAge,before3400B.c.

TheAccessionofMenes,3400B.c.

ThefirstTwoDynasties,3400-2980B.c.

TheOldKingdom:DynastiesThreetoSix,2980-

2475B.c.

DynastiesSevenandEight,2475-2445B.c.

EighteenHeracleopolitans,DynastiesNineandTen,

2445-2160B.c.

TheMiddleKingdom:DynastiesElevenandTwelve

2160-1788B.c.

InternalConBictsoftheFeudatories,)1788-1580

TheHyksos,)B.c.

24INTRODUCTION

TheEmpire:FirstPeriod,theEighteenthDynasty,

1580-1350B.c.

TheEmpire:SecondPeriod,theNineteenthand

partoftheTwentiethDynasty,1350-1150B.c.

LastTwoGenerationsofTwentieth

Dynasty,about1150to1090B.c.

Tanite-AmonitePeriod,Twenty-first

Dynasty,1090-945B.c.

TheDecadenciLibyanPeriod,DynastiesTwenty-

twotoTwenty-four,945-712B.c.

EthiopianPeriod,722-663B.c.

(Twenty-fifthDynasty,712-661 B.c.

AssyrianSupremacy,670-660B.c.

TheRestoration,660-525B.c.(SaitePeriod,

Twenty-sixthDynasty,663-525.B.c).

26.Thereaderwillfindattheendofthevolumea

fullertableofreigns.Thechronologyoftheabove tableisobtainedbytwoindependentprocesses :firstby "deadreckoning,"andsecondbyastronomicalcalcula- tionsbasedontheEgyptiancalendar.By"dead reckoning"wemeansimplytheadditionoftheknown minimumlengthofallthekings'reigns,andfromthe totalthusobtained,thesimplecomputation(backward fromafixedstartingpoint)ofthedateofthebeginning oftheseriesofreignssoadded.Employingallthe latestdatesfromrecentdiscoveries,itismathematically certainthatfromtheaccessionoftheEighteenthDy- nastytotheconquestofthePersiansin525B.c.the successivePharaohsreignedatleast1052yearsinall (BAR,I,47-51).TheEighteenthDynastytherefore begannotlaterthan1577B.c.Astronomicalcalcula- tions(independentoftheabovedeadreckoning),based

PRELIMINARYSURVEY25

onthedateoftherisingofSirius,andoftheoccur- renceofnewmoonsbothintermsoftheshifting

Egyptiancalendar,placethedateoftheaccessionof

theEighteenthDynastywithfairprecisionin1580

B.c.(BAR,I,38-46).Fortheperiodsearlierthan

theEighteenthDynasty,wecannolongeremploythe methodofdeadreckoningalone,becauseofthescanti- nessofthecontemporarydocuments.Fortunatelyan- othercalendardateoftherisingofSirius,fixesthe adventoftheTwelfthDynastyat2000B.c.,witha marginofuncertaintyofnotmorethanayearortwo eitherway.Fromthisdatethebeginningofthe

EleventhDynastyisagainonlyamatterof"dead

reckoning."Theuncertaintyastothedurationofthe

Heracleopolitansupremacymakesthelengthofthe

periodbetweentheOldandMiddleKingdomsvery uncertain.IfwegivetheeighteenHeracleopolitans sixteenyearseach,which,underorderlyconditions,is afairaverageintheOrient,theywillhaveruled288 years(BAR,I,53).Inestimatingtheirdurationat

285years,wemayerrpossiblyasmuchasacentury

eitherway.ThecomputationofthelengthoftheOld

Kingdomisbasedoncontemporarymonumentsand

earlylists,inwhichthemarginoferrorisprobablynot morethanagenerationortwoeitherway,buttheun- certainlengthoftheHeracleopolitanruleaffectsall datesbackofthatage,andashiftofacenturyeither wayintheyearsB.c.isnotimpossible.Theancient annalsofthePalermoStoneestablishthelengthofthe firsttwodynastiesatroughly420years(MC,201/.,

BAR,I,84-85),andthedateoftheaccessionofMenes

andtheunionofEgyptas3400B.c.;butwecarry backwithus,fromtheHeracleopolitanage,thesame widemarginofuncertaintyasintheOldKingdom.

26INTRODUCTION

Thereaderwillhaveobservedthatthissystemof

chronologyisbaseduponthecontemporarymonu- mentsandlistsdatingnotlaterthan1200B.c.The extremelyhighdatesforthebeginningofthedynasties currentinsomehistoriesareinheritedfromanolder generationofEgyptologists;andarebaseduponthe chronologyofManetho,alate,careless,anduncritical compilation,thedynastictotalsofwhichcanbeproven wrongfromthecontemporarymonumentsinthevast majorityofcases,wheresuchmonumentshavesur- vived.Itsdynastictotalsaresoabsurdlyhighthrough- out,thattheyarenotworthyofamoment'scredence, beingoftennearlyorquitedoublethemaximumdrawn fromcontemporarymonuments,andtheywillnotstand theslightestcarefulcriticism.Theiraccuracyisnow maintainedonlybyasmallandconstantlydecreasing numberofmodernscholars.

27.Likeourchronologyourknowledgeoftheearly

historyofEgyptmustbegleanedfromthecontempo- rarynativemonuments(BAR,I,1-37).Monumental records,evenwhenfullandcompleteareatbestbut insufficientsources,affordingdataforonlythemeagrest outlinesofgreatachievementsandimportantepochs.

Whilethematerialcivilizationofthecountryfound

adequateexpressioninmagnificentworksoftheartist, craftsmanandengineer,theinnerlifeofthenation, oreventhepurelyexternaleventsofmomentcould findrecordonlyincidentally.Suchdocumentsare sharplydifferentiatedfromthematerialswithwhich thehistorianofEuropeannationsdeals,exceptof courseinhisstudyoftheearliestages.Extensive correspondencebetweenstatesmen,journalsanddiaries, statedocumentsandreportssuchmaterialsasthese arealmostwhollywantinginmonumentalrecords.

PRELIMINARYSURVEY27

ImaginewritingahistoryofGreecefromthefewGreek

inscriptionssurviving.Moreover,wepossessnohis- toryofEgyptofsufficientlyearlydatebyanative

Egyptian;thecompilationofpuerilefolk-talesby

Manetho,inthethirdcenturyB.c.ishardlyworthy

ofthenamehistory.Butanannalistoftheremote ageswithwhichwearetodeal,couldhavehadlittle conceptionofwhatwouldbeimportantforfutureages toknow,evenifhehadundertakenafullchronicleof historicalevents.Scantyannalswereindeedkept fromtheearliesttimes,butthesehaveentirelyperished withtheexceptionoftwofragments,thenowfamous

PalermoStone(BAR,I,76-167;BH,24),whichonce

boretheannalsoftheearliestdynastiesfromthe beginningdownintotheFifthDynasty;andsomeex- tractsfromtherecordsofThutmoseIll'scampaigns inSyria.Oftheothermonumentsofincidentalchar- acterbutthemerestfractionhassurvived.Under thesecircumstancesweshallprobablyneverbeableto offermorethanasketchofthecivilizationoftheOld andMiddleKingdoms,withahazyoutlineofthe generaldriftofevents.UndertheEmpiretheavail- abledocuments,bothinqualityandquantity,forthe firsttimeapproachtheminimum,whichinEuropean historywouldberegardedasadequatetoamoderately fullpresentationofthecareerofthenation.Scoresof importantquestions,however,stillremainunanswered, inwhateverdirectionweturn.Neverthelessarough frame-workofthegovernmentalorganization,thecon- stitutionofsociety,themostimportantachievements oftheemperors,andtoalimitedextentthespiritof theage,maybediscernedandsketchedinthemain outlines,eventhoughitisonlyhereandtherethat thesourcesenableustofillinthedetail.IntheDe-

28INTRODUCTION

cadenceandtheRestoration,however,thesamepau- cityofdocuments,sopainfullyapparentintheolder periods,againleavesthehistorianwithalongseries ofhypothesesandprobabilities.Forthereservewith whichtheauthorhasconstantlytreatedsuchperiods, hebegsthereadertoholdthescantysourcesresponsible (BAR,I,1-26),

EARLIESTEGYPT

28.THEforefathersofthepeoplewithwhomwe

shallhavetodealwererelatedtotheLibyansornorth

Africansontheonehand,andontheothertothe

peoplesofeasternAfrica,nowknownastheGalla,

Somali,Bega,andothertribes.Aninvasionofthe

NilevalleybySemiticnomadsofAsia,stampedits

essentialcharacterunmistakablyuponthelanguageof theAfricanpeoplethere.Theearlieststrataofthe

Egyptianlanguageaccessibletous,betrayclearlythis

compositeorigin.WhilestillcolouredbyitsAfrican antecedents,thelanguageisinstructureSemitic.It ismoreoveracompletedproductasobservableinour earliestpreservedexamplesofit;butthefusionofthe

LibyansandeastAfricanswiththeNilevalleypeoples

continuedfarintohistorictimes,andinthecaseof theLibyansmaybetracedinancienthistoricaldocu- mentsforthreethousandyearsormore.TheSemitic immigrationfromAsia,examplesofwhicharealso observableinthehistoricage,occurredinanepoch thatliesfarbelowourremotesthistoricalhorizon. "Weshallneverbeabletodeterminewhen,norwith certaintythroughwhatchannelsittookplace,al- thoughthemostprobablerouteisthatalongwhich wemayobserveasimilarinfluxfromthedesertsof

Arabiainhistorictimes,theisthmusofSuez,bywhich

30INTRODUCTION

theMohammedaninvasionenteredthecountry.While theSemiticlanguagewhichtheybroughtwiththem leftitsindelibleimpressupontheoldNilevalleypeople, thenomadiclifeofthedesertwhichtheinvadersleft behindthemevidentlywasnotsopersistent,andthe religionofEgypt,thatelementoflifewhichalways receivesthestampofitsenvironment,showsnotrace ofdesertlife.Theaffinitiesobservableinthelanguage areconfirmedincaseoftheLibyansbythesurviving productsofarchaiccivilizationintheNilevalley,such assomeoftheearlypottery,whichcloselyresembles thatstillmadebytheLibyanKabyles.Againtherep- resentationsoftheearlyPuntites,orSomalipeople,on theEgyptianmonuments,showstrikingresemblances totheEgyptiansthemselves.Theexaminationofthe bodiesexhumedfromarchaicburialsintheNilevalley, whichwehadhopedmightbringfurtherevidencefor thesettlementoftheethnicproblem,has,however, producedsuchdiversityofopinionamongthephysical anthropologists,astorenderitimpossibleforthe historiantoobtaindecisiveresultsfromtheirresearches.

Ithas,however,beenshownthattheprehistoricand

thehistoricEgyptiansasnowfoundintheancient cemeteriesareidenticalinrace.

29.Asfoundintheearliestburialsto-day,thepre-

dynasticEgyptianswereadark-hairedpeople,already possessedoftherudimentsofcivilization.Themen woreaskinovertheshoulders,sometimesskindrawers, andagainonlyashortwhitelinenkilt;whilethe womenwereclothedinlonggarmentsofsometextile, probablylinen,reachingfromtheshoulderstothe ankles.Statuettesofbothsexeswithoutclothing whateverare,however,verycommon.Sandalswere notunknown.Theyoccasionallytattooedtheirbodies,

EARLIESTEGYPT31

andtheyalsowroughtornamentssuchasrings,brace- letsandpendantsofstone,ivoryandbone;withbeads offlint,quartz,carnelian,agateandthelike.The womendressedtheirhairwithornamentedivorycombs andpins.Fortheeye-andface-paintnecessaryfor thetoilettheyhadpalettesofcarvedslateonwhich thegreencolourwasground.Theywereabletobuild dwellingsofwattle,sometimessmearedwithmud,and probablylaterofsun-driedbrick.Inthefurnishing ofthesehousestheydisplayedconsiderablemechanical skill,andarudimentaryartistictaste.Theyatewith ivoryspoons,sometimesevenrichlycarvedwithfigures ofanimalsintheround,marchingalongthehandle.

Althoughthewheelwasatfirstunknowntothem,they

producedfinepotteryofthemostvariedformsinvast quantities.ThemuseumsofEuropeandAmericaare nowfilledwiththeirpolishedredandblackware,ora varietywithincisedgeometricaldesigns,sometimesin basketpatterns,whileanotherstyleofgreatimportance tousispaintedwithruderepresentationsofboats,men, animals,birds,fishortrees.Whiletheymadenoob- jectsofglass,theyunderstoodtheartofglazingbeads, plaquesandthelike.Crudestatuettesinwood,ivory, orstone,representthebeginningsofthatplasticart whichwastoachievesuchtriumphsintheearlydy- nasticage;andthreelargestonestatuesofMin,found byPetrieatCoptos,displaytherudestrengthofthe predynasticcivilizationofwhichwearenowspeaking.Theartoftheprolificpotterwasobligedtogiveway slowlytotheartificerinstone,whofinallyproduced excellentstonevessels,which,ongainingtheuseof coppertools,herapidlyimprovedtowardtheendofthe predynasticperiod,whenhisbowlsandjarsinthe hardeststones,likethedioritesandporphyries,display

32INTRODUCTION

magnificentwork.Themostcunninglywroughtflints thathaveeverbeenfoundamonganypeoplebelongto thisage.Themakerswereultimatelyabletoaffix carvedivoryhafts,andwithequalskilltheyputtogether stoneandflintaxes,flint-headedfish-spearsandthe like.Thewarmacewithpear-shapedhead,asfound alsoinBabylonia,ischaracteristicoftheage.Sideby sidewithsuchweaponsandimplementstheyalsopro- ducedandusedweaponsandimplementsofcopper.

Itisindeedtheageoftheslowtransitionfromstoneto

copper.Gold,silverandlead,whilerare,wereinuse.

30.InthefruitfulNilevalleywecannotthinkof

suchapeopleasotherthanchieflyagricultural;and thefactthattheyemergeintohistoricaltimesasagri- culturalists,withanancientreligionofvastlyremote prehistoricorigin,whosesymbolsandoutwardmani- festationsclearlybetraytheprimitivefanciesofan agriculturalandpastoralpeopleallthiswouldlead tothesameconclusion.Intheunsubduedjunglesof theNile,animallifewasofcoursemuchmoreplentiful atthattimethannow;theelephant,giraffe,hippo- potamusandthestrangeokapi,whichwasdeifiedas thegodSet,wanderedthroughthejungles,thoughall theseanimalswerelaterextinct.Theseearlymen werethereforegreathunters,aswellasskilfulfisher- men.Theypursuedthemostformidablegameofthe desert,likethelionorthewildox,withbowsand arrows;andinlightboatstheyattackedthehippo- potamusandthecrocodilewithharpoonsandlances.

Theycommemoratedtheseandlikedeedsinrudepict-

uresincisedontherocks,wheretheyarestillfound intheNilevalley,coveredwithaheavybrownpatina ofweathering,suchashistoricsculpturesneverdisplay; thusshowingtheirvastage.

EARLIESTEGYPT33

31.Theirindustriesmayhaveresultedinrudi-

mentarycommercefor,besidestheirsmallhunting- boats,theybuiltvesselsofconsiderablesizeontheNile, apparentlypropelledbymanyoarsandguidedbya largerudder.Sailingshipswererare,buttheywere notunknown.Theirvesselsborestandards,probably indicatingtheplacefromwhicheachhailed,foramong themappearwhatmaybethecrossedarrowsofthe goddessNeitofSais,whileanelephantimmediately suggeststhelaterElephantine.Theseensignsare,in somecases,strikinglysimilartothoselateremployed inhieroglyphicasthestandardsofthelocalcommuni- ties,andtheirpresenceontheearlyshipssuggeststhe existenceofsuchcommunitiesinthoseprehistoricdays.Thelateradministrativeorfeudaldivisionsofthe countryinhistorictimes,thenomes,astheGreeks calledthem,towhichweshalloftenhaveoccasionto refer,arelikelytohavebeensurvivalsofsuchprehis- toricpettystatesasthesestandardssuggest.Ifthis betrue,therewereprobablysometwentysuchstates distributedalongtheriverinUpperEgypt.However thismaybe,thesepeoplewerealreadyatastageof civilizationwhereconsiderabletownsappearandcity- states,asinBabylonia,musthavedeveloped,eachwith itschiefordynast,itslocalgod,worshippedinacrude sanctuary;anditsmarkettowhichthetributary,out- lyingcountrywasattracted.Thelongprocessby whichsuchcommunitiesgrewupcanbeonlysurmised fromtheanalogyofsimilardevelopmentselsewhere, forthesmallkingdomsandcity-states,outofwhich thenationwasultimatelyconsolidated,donotfall withinthehistoricage,asinBabylonia.

32.Thegradualfusionwhichfinallymergedthese

pettystatesintotwokingdoms:oneintheDelta,and

34INTEODUCTION

theothercomprisingthestatesofthevalleyabove,is likewiseaprocessofwhichwe$hallneverknowthe course.Ofitsheroesanditsconquerors,itswarsand conquests,notanechowilleverreachus;noristhere theslightestindicationofthelength\oftimeconsumed bythisprocess.Itwillhardlyhave\beenconcluded, however,before4000B.c.Ourknowledgeofthe twokingdomswhichemergedattheendofthislong prehistoricageisbutslightlymoresatisfactory.The

Deltawas,throughthehistoricage,opentoinroadsof

theLibyanswhodweltuponthewestofit;andthecon- stantinfluxofpeoplefromthissourcegavethewestern

DeltaadistinctlyLibyancharacterwhichitpreserved

evendowntothetimeofHerodotus.Attheearliestmo- ment,whenthemonumentsrevealtheconditionsinthe

Delta,thePharaohiscontendingwiththeLibyanin-

vaders,andtheearlierkingdomoftheNorthwillthere- forehavebeenstronglyLibyan,ifindeeditdidnotowe itsorigintothissource.Reliefsrecentlydiscoveredat

AbusirshowfourLibyanchieftainswearingontheir

browstheroyalureeusserpentofthePharaohs,to whomitthereforedescendedfromsomeearlyLibyan kingoftheDelta.ThetempleatSais,inthewestern

Delta,thechiefcentreofLibyaninfluenceinEgypt,

borethename"HouseoftheKingofLowerEgypt" (theDelta),andtheemblemofNeit,itschiefgoddess wastattooedbytheLibyansupontheirarms.Itmay thereforehavebeenanearlyresidenceofaLibyan kingoftheDelta,althoughthecapitaloftheNorth wastraditionallyButo.Asitscoatofarmsorsymbol theNorthernKingdomemployedatuftofpapyrus plant,whichgrewsoplentifullyinitsmarshesasto bedistinctiveofit.Thekinghimselfwasdesignated byabee,andworeuponhisheadaredcrown,

EARLIESTEGYPT35

bothincolourandshapepeculiartohiskingdom.

Allofthesesymbolsareverycommoninlaterhiero-

glyphic.Redwasthedistinctivecolourofthenorth- ernkingdomanditstreasurywascalledthe"Red

House."

33.UnfortunatelytheDeltaissodeeplyoverlaid

withdepositsofNilemudthatthematerialremains ofitsearliestcivilizationareburiedforeverfromour reach.Thatcivilizationwasprobablyearlierand moreadvancedthanthatofthevalleyabove.Already intheforty-thirdcenturyB.c.themenoftheDelta haddiscoveredtheyearofthreehundredandsixty-five daysandtheyintroducedacalendaryearofthislength, beginningonthedaywhenSiriusroseatsunrise,as determinedinthelatitudeofthesouthernDelta,where theseearliestastronomerslived,in4241B.C.(MC,

38ff.).ItisthecivilizationoftheDelta,therefore,which

furnishesuswiththeearliestfixeddateinthehistory oftheworld.ItwasthusalsothesemenoftheDelta whofurnishedthemoderncivilizedworldwithits calendar,which,astheydevisedit,withtwelvethirty- daymonthsandfiveintercalaryfeastdays,wasthe onlypracticalcalendarknowninantiquity.Theyear beganonthatdaywhenSiriusfirstappearedonthe easternhorizonatsunrise(theheliacalrising),whichin ourcalendarwasonthenineteenthofJuly(Julian).

Butasthiscalendaryearwasinrealityaboutaquarter

ofadayshorterthanthesolaryear,itthereforegained afulldayeveryfouryears,thusslowlyrevolvingonthe astronomicalyear,passingentirelyarounditoncein fourteenhundredandsixtyyears,onlytobeginthe revolutionagain.Anastronomicaleventlikethe heliacalrisingofSirius,whendatedintermsofthe

Egyptiancalendar,maythereforebecomputedand

36INTRODUCTION

datedwithinfouryearsintermsofourreckoning,that is,inyearsB.C.

34.ThekingdomofUpperEgyptwasmoredis-

tinctivelyEgyptianthanthatoftheDelta.Ithadits capitalatNekheb,modernElKab,anditsstandardor symbolwasalilyplant,whileanothersouthernplant servedastheensignoftheking,whowasfurtherdis- tinguishedbyatallwhitecrown,whitebeingthecolour oftheSouthernKingdom.Itstreasurywastherefore knownasthe"WhiteHouse."Therewasaroyal residenceacrosstheriverfromNekheb,calledNekhen, thelaterHieraconpolis,whilecorrespondingtoitin theNorthernKingdomwasasuburbofButo,calledPe.

Eachcapitalhaditspatronessorprotectinggoddess:

Buto,theserpent-goddess,intheNorth;andinthe

Souththevulture-goddess,Nekhbet.Butatboth

capitalsthehawk-godHoruswasworshippedasthe distinctivepatrondeityofbothkings.Thepeopleof thetimebelievedinalifehereafter,subjecttowantsof thesamenatureasthoseofthepresentlife.Their cemeteriesarewidelydistributedalongthemarginof thedesertinUpperEgypt,andoflateyearsthousands ofintermentshavebeenexcavated.Thetombisusu- allyaflat-bottomedovalorrectangularpit,inwhich thebody,doubledintothe"contracted"or"embry- onic"posture,liesonitsside.Intheearliestburials itiswrappedinaskin,butlateralsoinwovenfabric; thereisnotraceofembalmment.Beneaththebody isfrequentlyamatofplaitedrushes;itoftenhasin thehandoratthebreastaslatepaletteforgrinding face-paint,thegreenmalachiteforwhichliesnearina smallbag.Thebodyisbesidesaccompaniedbyother articlesoftoiletorofadornmentandissurroundedby jarsofpotteryorstonecontainingashororganic

EARLIESTEGYPT37

matter,theremainsoffood,drinkandointmentforthe deceasedinthehereafter.Notonlywerethetoiletand otherbodilywantsofthedeceasedthusprovidedfor, buthewasalsogivenhisflintweaponsorbone-tipped harpoonsthathemightreplenishhislarderfromthe chase.Claymodelsofobjectswhichhemightneed werealsogivenhim,especiallyboats.Thepitsare sometimesroughlyroofedoverwithbranches,covered withaheapofdesertsandandgravel,formingrudi- mentarytombs,andlatertheycametobelinedwith crude,sun-driedbrick.Sometimesahuge,roughly hemisphericalbowlofpotterywasinvertedoverthe bodyasitlayinthepit.Theseburialsfurnishthesole contemporarymaterialforourstudyofthepredynastic age.Thegodsofthehereafterwereappealedtoin prayersandmagicalformulae,whicheventuallytook conventionalandtraditionalforminwriting.Athou- sandyearslaterinthedynasticagefragmentsofthese mortuarytextsarefoundinuseinthepyramidsofthe

FifthandSixthDynasties(seepp.65-8).PepiI,a

kingoftheSixthDynasty,inhisrebuildingofthe

Denderehtemple,claimedtobereproducingaplanof

asanctuaryofthepredynastickingsonthatspot.

Templesofsomesorttheythereforeevidentlyhad.

35.Whiletheythusearlypossessedalltherudiments

ofmaterialculture,thepeopleofthisagedevelopeda systemofwritingalso.Thecomputationsnecessary forthediscoveryanduseofthecalendarshowauseof writinginthelastcenturiesofthefifthmillenniumB.c.

Itisshownalsobythefactthatnearlyathousandyears

laterthescribesoftheFifthDynastywereabletocopy alonglistofthekingsoftheNorth,andperhapsthose oftheSouthalso(BAR,I,76-167);whilethemortuary textstowhichwehavereferredwillnothavesurvived

38INTRODUCTION

athousandyearswithouthavingbeencommittedto writinginthesameway.Thehieroglyphsforthe

NorthernKingdom,foritsking,andforitstreasury

cannothavearisenatonestrokewiththefirstkingof thedynasticage;butmusthavebeeninuselong beforetheriseoftheFirstDynasty;whilethepresence ofacursivelinearhandatthebeginningofthedy- nastiesisconclusiveevidencethatthesystemwasnot thenarecentinnovation.

36.OfthedeedsoftheseremotekingsoftheNorth

andSouth,whopassedawaybeforethreethousandfour hundredB.C.,weknownothing.Theirtombshave neverbeendiscovered,afactwhichaccountsforthe lackofanywrittenmonumentsamongthecontem- porarydocuments,allofwhichcomefromtombsof thepoorerclasses,suchascontainnowritingevenin thedynasticage.Sevennamesofthekingsofthe

Delta,likeSeka,Khayu,orThesh,aloneofalltheline

havesurvived;butoftheSouthernKingdomnoteven aroyalnamehasdescendedtous,unlessitbethatof theScorpion,which,occurringonsomefewremains ofthisearlyage,wasprobablythatofoneofthepower- fulchieftainsoftheSouth(BAR,I,166).Thescribes oftheFifthDynastywhodrewupthislistofkings, someeighthundredyearsafterthelinehadpassed away,seemtohaveknownonlytheroyalnames,and wereunableto,oratleastdidnotrecord,anyoftheir achievements(BAR,I,90).Asaclassthesekingsof theNorthandSouthwereknowntotheirposterityas the"worshippersofHorus";andasagespassedthey becamehalf-mythicfigures,graduallytobeendowed withsemi-divineattributes,untiltheywereregarded asthedemi-godswhosucceededthedivinedynasties, thegreatgodswhohadruledEgyptinthebeginning

EARLIESTEGYPT89

(SU,III).Theiroriginalcharacterasdeceasedkings, asknowntotheearlierdynasties,ledtotheirbeing consideredespeciallyasalineofthedivinedeadwho hadruledoverthelandbeforetheaccessionofhuman kings;andinthehistoricalworkofManethothey appearsimplyas"thedead."Thustheirrealhistor- icalcharacterwasfinallycompletelysublimated,then tomergeintounsubstantialmyth,andtheancientkings oftheNorthandtheSouthwereworshippedinthe capitalswheretheyhadonceruled.

37.Thenextstepinthelongandslowevolutionof

nationalunitywastheunionoftheNorthandtheSouth.

Thetraditionwhichwasstillcurrentinthedaysofthe

GreeksinEgypt,totheeffectthatthetwokingdoms

wereunitedbyakingnamedMenes,isfullyconfirmed bytheevidenceoftheearlymonuments.Thefigureof

Menes,butafewyearssinceasvagueandelusiveas

thoseofthe"worshippersofHorus,"whoprecededhim, hasnowbeenclothedwithunmistakablereality,and heatlaststepsforthintohistorytoheadthelongline ofPharaohswhohaveyettopassusinreview.It musthavebeenaskilfulwarriorandavigorousad- ministrator,whothusgatheredtheresourcesofthe

SouthernKingdomsowellinhandthathewasable

toinvadeandconquertheDelta,andthusmergethe twokingdomsintoonenation,completingthelong processofcentralizationwhichhadbeengoingonfor manycenturies.HisnativecitywasThinis,anob- scureplaceinthevicinityofAbydos,whichwasnot nearenoughtothecentreofhisnewkingdomtoserve ashisresidence,andwecaneasilycreditthenarrative ofHerodotusthathebuiltagreatdam,divertingthe courseoftheNileabovethesiteofMemphisthathe mightgainroomthereforacity.Thisstronghold,

40INTRODUCTION

perhapsnotyetcalledMemphis,wasprobablyknown asthe"WhiteWall,"inreferenceofcoursetothe

WhiteKingdom,whosepoweritrepresented.Ifwe

maybelievethetraditionofHerodotus'time,itwas fromthisplace,situatedsofavourablyontheborder betweenthetwokingdoms,thatMenesprobablygov- ernedthenewnationwhichhehadcreated.Hecarried hisarmsalsosouthwardagainstnorthernNubia(NGH,

20),whichthenextendedbelowthefirstcataractasfar

northwardasthenomeofEdfu.Accordingtothe traditionofManetho,hewasblessedwithalongreign, andthememoryofhisgreatachievementwasimperish- able,aswehaveseen.HewasburiedinUpperEgypt, eitheratAbydosnearhisnativeThinis,orsomedis- tanceaboveitnearthemodernvillageofNegadeh, wherealargebricktomb,probablyhis,stillsurvives.

InitandsimilartombsofhissuccessorsatAbydos

writtenmonumentsofhisreignhavebeenfound,and evenagoldenfragmentofhisroyaladornments,bear- inghisname,whichthisancientfounderoftheEgyptian stateworeuponhisperson.

38.Thekingsofthisremoteprotodynasticageareno

longermerelyaseriesofnamesasbutafewyearssince theystillwere.Asagroupatleast,weknowmuch oftheirlifeanditssurroundings;althoughweshall neverbeabletodiscernthemaspossessedofdistinguish- ablepersonality.Theyblendtogetherwithoutdistinc- tionaschildrenoftheirage.Theoutwardinsignia whichallalikeemployedwerenowaccommodatedto theunitedkingdom.Theking'sfavouritetitlewas "Horus,"bywhichheidentifiedhimselfasthesuc- cessorofthegreatgodwhohadonceruledoverthe kingdom.Everywhere,onroyaldocuments,sealsand thelike,appearedtheHorus-hawkasthesymbolof

EARLIESTEGYPT41

royalty.Hewasmounteduponarectanglerepresent- ingthefacadeofabuilding,probablytheking'spalace, withinwhichwaswrittentheking'sofficialname.The otherorpersonalnameoftherulerwasprecededby thebeeoftheNorthandtheplantoftheSouthern

King,toindicatethathehadnowabsorbedbothtitles;

whilewiththesetwosymbolsthereoftenappearedalso

Nekhbet,thevulture-goddessofElKab,thesouthern

capital,sidebysidewithButo,theserpent-goddessof thenortherncapital.Onthesculpturesofthetime, theprotectingvulturehoverswithoutspreadwings overtheheadoftheking,butashefelthimselfstill asprimarilykingofUpperEgypt,itwasnotuntil laterthatheworetheserpentoftheNorth,thesacred urEeusuponhisforehead.SimilarlySetsometimesap- pearswithHorus,precedingtheking'spersonalname, thetwogodsthusrepresentingtheNorthandtheSouth, dividingthelandbetweentheminaccordancewiththe mythwhichweshalllaterhaveoccasiontodiscuss. isoftenspokenofasthe"doublelord."Thushis dominionoveraunitedEgyptwasconstantlypro- claimed.

39.Weseethekingonceremoniousoccasionsap-

pearinginsomestate,precededbyfourstandard- bearersandaccompaniedbyhischancellor,personal attendants,orascribe,andtwofan-bearers.Hewore thewhitecrownofUpperortheredcrownofLower

Egypt,orevenacuriouscombinationofthecrownsof

bothkingdoms,andasimplegarmentsuspendedbya strapoveroneshoulder,towhichalion'stailwasap- pendedbehind.Sodressedandsoattendedhecon- ductedtriumphantcelebrationsofhisvictoriesorled theceremoniesattheopeningofcanalsortheinaugura-

42INTRODUCTION

tionofpublicworks.Onthethirtiethanniversaryof hisappointmentbyhisfatherascrownprincetothe heirshipofthekingdom,thekingcelebratedagreat jubileecalledthe"FeastofSed,"awordmeaning "tail,"andperhapscommemoratinghisassumption oftheroyallion'stailathisappointmentthirtyyears before.Hewasamightyhunter,andrecordedwith prideanachievementliketheslayingofahippopotamus.

Hisweaponswerecostlyandelaborate,asweshallsee.

Hisseveralpalaceseachboreaname,andtheroyal

estatepossessedgardensandvineyards,thelatterbeing als