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CIVIL SOCIETY COMPUTER NETWORKS

THE PERILOUS ROAD OF CYBER-POLITICS

FRANÇOIS FORTIER

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Graduate Programme in Political Science

York University

North York, Ontario

November 1996

ii iii ivABSTRACT Over the last decade, the development of micro-telematics has offered organizations of civil society a new and powerful tool for information sharing and coordination. This dissertation considers how civil society organizations first invested human resources and capital to appropriate micro-telematics, a technology initially developed by military and corporate interests. Like all technologies, micro-telematics is a social product, shaped in its development and forms of use by social sectors with various and sometimes opposite interests. The research looks at the extent to which micro-telematics may actually empower organizations of civil society, providing new means of telecommunication, peer networking, activity coordination, and modifying their information practices both for documentation retrieval and broadcasting. It is shown that empowerment is, in fact, limited by numerous obstacles, at the appropriation level and by the structural constraints of social relations. Furthermore, having become a tool of social struggles, micro- telematics has also, not surprisingly, turned into an object of conflict. The dissertation considers the specific political economy emerging with the new technology: marginalization from increasingly important channels of information; restrictions on appropriation; control of information flows; cooptation and commercialization. The experiences of two principal case studies, where field research was conducted, feed the analysis with empirical data. The first is the Alternex network, a civil society micro-telematic service provider based in Rio de Janeiro and serving a large part of South America. The second is Netnam, the first public Internet service provider in Viet Nam. Numerous other interviews and secondary sources also feed the analysis. The research concludes that micro-telematics has mixed implications for organizations of civil society, depending mostly on resource endowments and the contextual political economy of communication and information. While the technology may offer significant but temporary advantage to early comers, over time it tends to be developed and used in ways more favourable to dominant sectors than to the less endowed groups of civil society. The research emphasises the need for sustained social struggles both in the field of communication and in structures of production if micro-telematics is to retain and increase its participatory democratic potential. vACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation could not have been written without the financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRCC) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada. SSHRCC support allowed me to complete my doctoral studies and IDRC provided a "Young Canadian Researcher Award" that covered travel and field research expenses in Brazil. I am also most grateful to the Instituto Brasileiro de Análisis Sociais e Econômicas (IBASE) in Rio de Janeiro for its logistical support and the warm hospitality of its staff, particularly Herbert (Betinho) de Souza and Maria de Souza, Carlos Afonso, Ricardo Campos, Cleide Dos Santos, Emilia Wien, and the staff of the Telematic Department. They and many others spared no effort or resources in facilitating research and in making my stay most enjoyable. My gratitude also goes to the staff of the Viên Công Nghê Thông Tin (Institute of Information Technology, IOIT) in Hanoi. Their enthusiasm and dedication to the Netnam project made my work among them most rewarding. I am particularly grateful to Bach Hung Khang, Tran Ba Thai, Ly Thanh Trung, Nguyen Thanh Huong, and the system operators of Netnam. Their friendship and hospitality contributed greatly to my integration into what has now become my second homeland. The research was also made possible by the patient guidance and meticulous advise of my director, Prof. Liisa North, whose devotion to her work and students is limitless. I am grateful to Professors John Saul, Reg Whitaker, Laura Macdonald, Alan Simmons, and Ricardo Grinspun who provided insightful criticisms and suggestions at one point or another in the course of research, writing, and revision. I thank Prof. Liora Salter for her comments on the first draft of the work and I owe a special debt to Prof. Peter Harries-Jones: although we disagreed on several issues, his critique was invaluable to the development of my argument. Last but not least, I also want to thank my close friends and family, who have been supporting me all along this long-haul doctoral enterprise. This is particularly true of my wife, Tran Thi Thu Trang, who has given me the energy to complete the research on, and writing of, this dissertation. viTABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACTiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSv

TABLE OF CONTENTSvi

TABLE OF FIGURESviii

LIST OF ACRONYMSix

INTRODUCTION1

I. Objective and Perspective1

II. Methodology2

CHAPTER 1 MICRO-TELEMATICS IN SOCIETY5

I. Conceptualizing Power5

A. Dialectics5

B. Power and Production6

C. Conflict8

D. Sectors of Civil Society9

II. Power and Micro-telematics12

A. Information and Communication as Power12

B. Networking as Power14

C. The Social Production of Micro-telematics16

D. Analytical Framework21

1. Appropriation21

2. Empowerment23

3. Political economy24

CHAPTER 2 GATHERING INFORMATION26

I. Interviews with Brazilian Users26

II. Participant Observation in Viet Nam29

III. Other Primary and Secondary Sources35

CHAPTER 3 APPROPRIATING THE TECHNOLOGY36

I. Telematics, Capital, and the State36

II. Grassroots Use of Micro-telematics41

III. Conditions of Appropriation46

A. Financial Limitations47

B. Infrastructure Constraints49

C. Skill Requirements50

D. Information Management52

E. Security54

CHAPTER 4 EMPOWERMENT56

I. Resource Endowment: Potential and Limitations56

A. Internal Linkages57

B. Organic Networking57

C. Coordination59

D. Accessing Information60

E. Broadcasting of Information62

F. Telecommunication Expenditures64

II. The Balance of Power64

A. Providing an Edge65

B. An Edge for Whom?67

1. Ambiguous Implications68

2. A Subversive Slant?69

3. Context of Empowerment72

CHAPTER 5 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MICRO-TELEMATICS74

I. Information Gap and Control74

A. Marginalization74

B. Information Flows: Setting the Agenda78

II. Reacting to Empowerment80

A. Restricting Appropriation80

B. Re-possessing Information Flows87

1. Control Apparatus87

2. Repression and Sabotage89

vii3. Policy Framework91

III. Cooptation: From Cyberspace to Cybermart94

CONCLUSIONS100

APPENDIX 1 LIST OF INTERVIEWS105

APPENDIX 2 SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN BRAZIL107 APPENDIX 3 NETNAM ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRE AND RESULTS109

BIBLIOGRAPHY112

viiiTABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Civil Society as Relational Space10

Figure 2. Viet Nam Political Power and IT Programme30 ixLIST OF ACRONYMS

AIAmnesty International

AMARCAssociation Mondiale des Artisants de la Radio Communautaire

ANUAustralian National University

APCAssociation for Progressive Communication

ARPANETAdvance Research Projects Agency Network, of the US Department of Defence Advance Research Projects Agency. ASCIIAmerican (National) Standard Code for Information Interchange

BBSBulletin Board System

BITNETBecause It's Time Network (North American Academic Network)

BRSBasic Radiology System

CENIAICentro de Intercambio Automático de Información CERLACCentre for Research on Latin America and the Caribbean

CIACentral Intelligence Agency

CIDACanadian International Development Agency

CIDSECoopération Internationale pour le Développement et la

Solidarité

CIMIConselho Indigena Missionario

CMCComputer Mediated Communication

CNNCable News Network

CONTAGConfederação Nacional dos Trabalhadores na Agricultura

CPTComissão Pastoral da Terra

CPVCommunist Party of Viet Nam

CUTCentral Unica dos Trabalhadores

DGPTDirectorate General of Post and Telecommunication

EARNEuropean Academic and Research Network

ECOSOCEconomic and Social Commission of the United Nations FAOFood and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations) FASEFederação de Orgães para Assistância Social e Educacional

FOBFranc on Board

FTPFile Transfer Protocol

GOPHERAn menu-driven FTP interface to retrieve files on the Internet

GUIGraphical User Interface

HTMLHypertext Markup Language, used to format WWW pages. HTTPHypertext Transfer Protocol, used between a WW client and host IBASEInstituto Brasileiro de Análisis Sociais e Econômicas ICEFInternational Federation of Chemical and General Workers'

Unions

ICEFInternational Federation of Chemical and General Workers'

Unions

IDRCInternational Development Research Centre

IEAInstituto de Estudos Amazonicos e Ambientais

IFSCSSIndependent Federation of Chinese Students and Scholars

IGCInstitute for Global Communication

IOITInstitute of Information Technology

IPSInter-Press Service

ISDNIntegrated Service Digital Networks

ISPInternet Service Provider

ITInformation Technology

IT2000Viet Nam National Committee on Information Technology

LANLocal Area Network

LDCLess Developed Country

MNPMicrocom Networking Protocol (error correction) MOSTEMinistry of Science, Technology and the Environment

NAFTANorth-American Free Trade Agreement

NCNSTNational Centre for Natural Sciences and Technology

NGONon-governmental Organization

xNLNSNew Liberation News Service OECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OSCOffice of the Steering Committee of IT2000

PACCOMPeople's Aid Coordination Committee

PCOPublic Call Office

PENPublic Electronic Network

PPPPoint-to-Point Protocol

PTTPost, Telegraph and Telephone company

R&DResearch and Development

SLIPSerial-Line Internet Protocol

SMTPSimple Mail Transfer Protocol

SWIFTSociety for Worldwide Interbank Financial Transactions TELNETTerminal Emulation with communication to a host over the

Internet

TCP/IPTransmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol UNCEDUnited Nations Conference on the Environment and Development

UNDPUnited Nations Development Programme

UNICEFUnited Nations Children's Fund

URLUniform Resource Locator, specifying a WWW server and home page (such as "www.yorku.ca") VARENETViet Nam Academic, Research and Educational Network

VCRVideo Camera Recorder

WELLWhole Earth 'Lectronic Link

VNPTViet Nam Post and Telecommunication Corporation WAISWide Area Information Service, user-friendly TCP/IP interface

WANWide Area Network

WFPWorld Food Programme

WWWWorld Wide Web, a powerful and user-friendly TCP/IP interface

1INTRODUCTION

I.Objective and Perspective

Over the last fifteen years, computer-mediated communication (CMC) has emerged as one of the main tools of telecommunication and information management. In the next decade, it is likely to become the single most important medium of organizational logistics, documentation, and information broadcasting. Among the various forms of CMC, micro-telematics is the low-cost option, easily accessible to civil society organizations and some private users. Its development, appropriation by different social sectors, and up-coming global reach will have significant implications on how information and power are distributed. The purpose of this research is to shed some light on the possible political implications of micro-telematics, particularly for organizations of civil society. It seeks to understand the mechanics of micro-telematics insertion in civil society by analysing the links between the technology and the social relations it may affect. To do so, the dissertation proposes the study of three processes: 1) technology appropriation, whereby micro- telematics is assimilated, developed, and adapted to correspond to the needs of civil society organizations; 2) potential empowerment of these organizations through the use of the technology in communication and information practices; and 3) the new political economy emerging over the control of micro-telematics and the information it carries. The dissertation thus looks at a range of indicative processes through which micro-telematics is inserted in various civil societies. The research builds on the ground-breaking works published over the last decade on the development and use of micro-telematics by grassroots and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (see notably Annis 1991, Downing

1989, Flakoll 1993, Frederick 1991, 1992, Lipnack and Stamps 1986, Vasconi

1993, and Rheingold 1993). Early in the process, this small but pioneering

body of literature recognized the significant implications that micro- telematics was having on several sectors of civil society. It drew attention to the networking effect of a technology that delocalizes and transnationalizes civil society relations, and it emphasised breakthroughs in access to information. Case studies of specific appropriation and uses were conducted, including between anti-NAFTA coalitions (Frederick 1994), Canadian indigenous organizations (O'Brien 1989), and the Chinese student movement (Bonchek 1995). These initial, mostly micro-level analyses focussed largely on the appropriation and usages of micro-telematics, which resulted in a rather positive interpretation of the technology's potential. In an attempt to push forward our knowledge of the process, this dissertation analyses the sometimes unexpected difficulties and new possibilities that have been encountered both in the appropriation and the use of the technology. Exploring the new and complex political economy of micro-telematics, this work also emphasises interests and conflicts in social environments sensitive to change. Such a macro-level analysis uncovers the limitations of technologically-induced social change, limitations largely invisible to micro-level research. Macro-level analysis suggests that promises of potential empowerment are undercut significantly by dominant sectors' reactions and obstruction. The dissertation therefore tones down some of the early enthusiasm that micro-telematics provoked. In turn, it hopes to consolidate our understanding of current technological and social changes in the field of communication and information, going beyond specific events to focus on the dynamic elements of power relations. In the end, I hope to nuance the debate and bridge to gap between the optimism of the "techno-freaks" and the pessimism of critical communication theorists. While micro-level analysis misses the impact that social

2relations have on technological development, macro-level research alone

bypasses, or often dismisses as irrelevant or futile, the social struggles through which civil society has already challenged dominant monopolization. My central thesis here is that, while it is true that micro-telematics is first and foremost an instrument of capitalist production and reproduction, civil society has not remained passive: it has effectively carved out alternative uses for the technology. By doing so, civil society is actually resisting, albeit in a limited way, a complete monopolization of the technology by dominant state and corporate sectors. This dissertation attempts to demonstrate the limits of the technology, but it also recognises the experiences of resistance and alternative use that civil society has undertaken for over a decade, often under difficult conditions. To be sure, one should not engage in "hype" about micro-telematics, but counter-formation strategies are possible, and necessary, to make the technology less oppressive, if not more useful, for pursuing social justice.II.Methodology Methodologically, the research is based on two major case studies, each providing insights for different aspects of the analysis. The first was completed in the Fall of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. I was then hosted by the Brazilian Institute of Social and Economic Analysis (IBASE) as a visiting researcher. I worked with the Telematic Department which runs the Alternex Internet service provider. Formal interviews were conducted among Alternex users and IBASE staff over a period of four months, in addition to work done on-line, observing information management practices and system uses. The second field site was Viet Nam, where I conducted research over a period of two years. As I was assigned to Viet Nam under a United Nations contract, I took advantage of my presence in the country to conduct participant observation as a volunteer adviser to the National Institute of Information Technology (IOIT). I worked with the team that established Netnam, the first Vietnamese Internet service provider. In this second case, few formal interviews were conducted, and most information was gathered while participating both in project management and user support services. Additional primary information has been collected from short-term contacts with other computer network administrators and users in Cuba, Ethiopia, and Italy (during 1992-1994). On-line correspondence with key actors was also used in a few instances. Finally, a significant amount of secondary source material serves to complement the field research in the construction of the dissertation's argument. This thesis does not provide a positivist demonstration of the quantitative links between micro-telematics and civil society political power. Rather, I am interested in the basic patterns of new social relations brought about by the introduction of the technology, whatever the society in quesiton. Although over-generalization represents a danger in this type of analysis, I would like to emphasize that at any given level of macro-analysis, social relations can be compared across societies. This is possible within a materialist as well as other approaches. For exemple, the finding that the state and dominant sectors take initiatives to control civil society networking in one society can be safely extrapolated to other societies within the conceptual framework of materialism (of course, the form of the reaction will differ from society to society). For this reason, the chapters of the dissertation are structured around the argumentation, focusing on issues rather than on the case studies as such. As discussed later, Brazil and Viet Nam were chosen for practical reasons, but this research is not about Brazil nor Viet Nam. It is about micro-telematics in

3civil society, wherever that might be. It draws information from the case

studies and secondary sources to discuss the issues, rather than presenting the cases as specific objects of study. To provide a framework to the arguments, the first chapter defines epistemological assumptions concerning the structuring of both technol- ogical development and the particular dynamics linking micro-telematics to its political economic context. I examine and try to clarify, at least for the purposes of and in the context of this research, the dialectical approach, notions of power, networking, social production of technology, links between Capital

1 and telematics, and the process of technology

appropriation. This chapter also presents the framework that guided the analysis of collected information, justifying and relating the three themes of appropriation, empowerment, and political economy of micro-telematics. Noble (1977, 1984) and Stewart (1978) provide the tools to link technologies to their social environment. By embracing their theoretical framework, the dissertation seeks to emphasize the interested and conflictive nature of technological development. Applying the framework to micro-telematics, I divide the analysis into the three aspects of appropriation, empowerment, and political economy. While the analysis of appropriation tells us about the penetration of the technology into its social fabric, the empowerment segment looks at the implications it has on the power of social sectors using the technology. The clarification of both processes is a prerequisite to analysing the third segment of the framework, that is micro-telematics as an object of institutional and political economic struggles. Here, the research steps into the processes of resistance and reaction that fuel new social conflicts. As with any conceptualization, we must keep in mind that the proposed analytical framework represents an artificial segmentation of reality, although essential to its understanding. Through it, the research seeks not only to contribute to the scientific understanding of a sphere of technological development which is still obscure but also to provide some analytical tools for developing strategies of democratic empowerment of civil society through micro-telematics. What would need to be done next, but goes beyond the scope of this research, is to confirm the adequacy of the proposed theoretical framework by focussing on the appropriation of an information technology, its actual impact on empowerment, and the political economy of its use and control. To confirm eventual patterns, an analysis could be conducted comparing micro- telematics with the appearance of other information technologies, such as the printing press or the telephone. Following the presentation of the theoretical framework, Chapter Two will explain the details of fieldwork in Brazil and Viet Nam. The work schedule and procedures are reviewed, as well as the methodology of data collection and the raw content of the information gathered. This should allow the reader to better relate the work done in the field to the argument that follows and to locate the two cases in the broader experience of micro-telematics worldwide. Chapter Three initiates the argumentation by looking at the processes through which civil society organizations have appropriated micro- telematics from the early 1980s onward. The objective is to verify that the technology is a social product shaped through its implementation, depending to a large extent on the endowments and strategic initiatives of certain 1 Capital is broadly defined, here, as a social sector comprised of the owners and administrators of the means of production in capitalist societies. Capital "C" is used whenever "Capital" refers to the class rather than the economic resource.

4organizations of civil society. The chapter looks at investment in capital,

technical resources, and expertise, in addition to the type of technologies used, network structures and their development, and conditions of adaptation. As well, the financial, technical, human resource, and managerial obstacles impeding the appropriation process are examined. This analysis lays the basis for understanding the interactive influences between the technology and society, a prerequisite to the study of its political implications. Chapter Four then turns to the implications of micro-telematics on the quantitative and qualitative resource endowment of civil society organizations. Drawing from the case studies and secondary sources, the dissertation looks at changes in communication practices, intra- organizational and peer networking, savings of financial resources, and how documentation, diffusion of information, and logistical coordination are affected and possibly improved by micro-telematics. Here, the argumentation considers if, and under what conditions, the technology is indeed providing an edge to its users, increasing their capacity for social action in relation to non-users. Most importantly, the dissertation considers the implication of micro-telematics in relative terms, asking whether civil society may in principle benefit more, or less, from the technology than other social sectors such as the state and Capital. In addition, while the tools of communication improve, other factors such as political cost- opportunity or social filters may hinder the effective development of civil society networking, voiding the benefits of micro-telematics. Clarifying the question of empowerment through telematics locates the potential of the technology as a tool of social activism. This permits the subsequent analysis of the technology as a new political object in its own right. As micro-telematics progressively becomes a powerful instrument of social struggle, the technology itself is becoming a stake and object of contention. This emerging political economy of micro-telematics is analysed in Chapter Five, where case studies and secondary sources are drawn upon to consider a range of processes through which certain groups are marginalized while access to, and use of, micro-telematics is curtailed or rendered useless to others. On the one hand, if accessing telematic networks becomes useful or even necessary, then not accessing them means being politically weakened. It implies that less powerful groups, less able to appropriate the technology, will likely suffer from a widening information gap between users and non- users. This is shown to be true within organizations, as well as between social sectors and international borders. On the other hand, dominant sectors have reacted to an increasingly powerful means of communication used by social forces challenging their authority. Reaction is shown to range from restriction on technological appropriation to sabotage of transmission, along with censorship, police monitoring, the legal liability of service providers, cooptation, commodification of information, and commercialization of networks. In conclusion, the research reinforces the theoretical understanding that the political economic implications of micro-telematics do not depend on the technology itself, but rather on social struggles that contextualize its appropriation and use. For certain, micro-telematics is not a magic sword for progressive struggles; it has to be shaped into a tool for human liberation.

5CHAPTER 1

MICRO-TELEMATICS IN SOCIETYI.Conceptualizing Power Researching the political economy of a virtual Cyberspace is a challenging enterprise. Cyberspace remains a realm of human activities still at the edge of comprehension, with limited mapping, blurred visions and unpredictable unfolding. As for political economy, it often bears similar characteristics. Short of proposing the ultimate paradigm, the following section suggests basic definitions that should suffice, at least to the objectives of this research, to establish a shared language. I have no intention of providing a comprehensive review of political theories (this is not the purpose of this research), nor of summarily and superficially criticising them with the intent of justifying my own epistemic choices (a practice that I deplore for the little justice it does to other approaches). Throughout this chapter, I will briefly refer to several schools and authors, but with the sole intention of locating and explicating my own approach among existing paradigms. Mostly on the basis of the historical materialist current, I will attempt to construct a coherent theoretical and analytical framework relevant to a political economy of micro-telematics.

A.Dialectics

I am here interested in the new power relations that are emerging with the adoption of micro-telematics. However, this dissertation will not provide a demonstration of the quantitative links between the advent of micro- telematics and changes in the power of civil society vis-a-vis the state and sectors of production. Such a positivist approach could be interesting and provide relevant insights and data. Nevertheless, from the vantagequotesdbs_dbs8.pdfusesText_14

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