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Audience ........................................................................................................................................................... i
Prerequisites ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Compile/Execute SQL Programs ....................................................................................................................... i
Copyright & Disclaimer ..................................................................................................................................... i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ ii
1. SYL ൞ Oǀerǀiew ......................................................................................................................................... 1
What is SQL? .................................................................................................................................................... 1
SQL Process ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
SQL Commands ................................................................................................................................................ 3
2. SYL ൞ RDBMS Concepts ............................................................................................................................. 5
What is RDBMS? .............................................................................................................................................. 5
SQL Constraints ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Data Integrity ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Database Normalization .................................................................................................................................. 7
Database - First Normal Form (1NF) ............................................................................................................... 8
Database - Second Normal Form (2NF) ........................................................................................................ 10
Database - Third Normal Form (3NF) ............................................................................................................ 11
3. SYL ൞ RDBMS Databases ......................................................................................................................... 14
MySQL ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
MS SQL Server ............................................................................................................................................... 15
ORACLE .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
MS ACCESS ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
4. SQL - Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Various Syntax in SQL .................................................................................................................................... 19
5. SYL ൞ Data Types .................................................................................................................................... 24
6. SQL - Operators ...................................................................................................................................... 28
What is an Operator in SQL? ......................................................................................................................... 28
SQL Arithmetic Operators ............................................................................................................................. 28
Arithmetic Operators - Examples ................................................................................................................. 29
SQL Comparison Operators ........................................................................................................................... 30
Comparison Operators - Examples ............................................................................................................... 31
SQL Logical Operators ................................................................................................................................... 34
Logical Operators - Examples........................................................................................................................ 35
7. SQL - Expressions ................................................................................................................................... 41
Boolean Expressions ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Numeric Expressions ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Date Expressions ........................................................................................................................................... 43
8. SQL - CREATE Database .......................................................................................................................... 45
9. SYL ൞ DROP or DELETE Database ............................................................................................................. 46
10. SYL ൞ SELECT Database, USE Statement .................................................................................................. 47
SQL iii11. SYL ൞ CREATE Table ................................................................................................................................ 48
SQL - Creating a Table from an Existing Table ............................................................................................... 49
12. SYL ൞ DROP or DELETE Table ................................................................................................................... 51
13. SYL ൞ INSERT Yuery ................................................................................................................................ 53
14. SYL ൞ SELECT Yuery ................................................................................................................................ 56
15. SYL ൞ WHERE Clause ............................................................................................................................... 59
16. SYL ൞ AND Θ OR Conjunctiǀe Operators ................................................................................................. 62
The AND Operator ......................................................................................................................................... 62
The OR Operator ........................................................................................................................................... 63
17. SYL ൞ UPDATE Yuery .............................................................................................................................. 66
18. SYL ൞ DELETE Yuery ................................................................................................................................ 69
19. SYL ൞ LIKE Clause .................................................................................................................................... 72
20. SYL ൞ TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause .................................................................................................... 76
21. SYL ൞ ORDER BY Clause ........................................................................................................................... 79
22. SYL ൞ Group By ....................................................................................................................................... 82
23. SQL ൞ Distinct Keyword ........................................................................................................................... 86
24. SYL ൞ SORTING Results ........................................................................................................................... 89
25. SYL ൞ Constraints .................................................................................................................................... 92
SQL - NOT NULL Constraint ........................................................................................................................... 92
SQL - DEFAULT Constraint ............................................................................................................................. 93
SQL - UNIQUE Constraint ............................................................................................................................... 94
SYL ൞ Primary Key.......................................................................................................................................... 95
SYL ൞ Foreign Key .......................................................................................................................................... 96
SYL ൞ CHECK Constraint ................................................................................................................................ 98
SQL ൞ INDEy Constraint ................................................................................................................................. 99
Dropping Constraints ................................................................................................................................... 101
Integrity Constraints .................................................................................................................................... 101
26. SYL ൞ Using Joins .................................................................................................................................. 102
SQL - INNER JOIN ......................................................................................................................................... 103
SYL ൞ LEFT JOIN ........................................................................................................................................... 105
SQL - RIGHT JOIN ......................................................................................................................................... 107
SYL ൞ FULL JOIN ........................................................................................................................................... 109
SYL ൞ SELF JOIN ........................................................................................................................................... 111
SYL ൞ CARTESIAN or CROSS JOIN ................................................................................................................. 113
27. SYL ൞ UNIONS CLAUSE .......................................................................................................................... 116
The UNION ALL Clause ................................................................................................................................. 119
SYL ൞ INTERSECT Clause .............................................................................................................................. 121
SYL ൞ EyCEPT Clause ................................................................................................................................... 123
SQL iv28. SYL ൞ NULL Values ................................................................................................................................ 127
29. SYL ൞ Alias Syntadž ................................................................................................................................. 130
30. SQL - Indexes ........................................................................................................................................ 134
The CREATE INDEX Command ..................................................................................................................... 134
The DROP INDEX Command ........................................................................................................................ 135
SQL - INDEX Constraint ................................................................................................................................ 135
31. SYL ൞ ALTER TABLE Command .............................................................................................................. 138
32. SQL - TRUNCATE TABLE Command ........................................................................................................ 142
33. SYL ൞ Using Views ................................................................................................................................. 143
Creating Views ............................................................................................................................................. 143
The WITH CHECK OPTION ............................................................................................................................ 144
34. SYL ൞ Haǀing Clause .............................................................................................................................. 148
35. SQL - Transactions ................................................................................................................................ 151
Properties of Transactions ........................................................................................................................... 151
Transactional Control Commands ............................................................................................................... 151
36. SYL ൞ Wildcard Operators ..................................................................................................................... 158
37. SYL ൞ Date Functions ............................................................................................................................ 162
38. SYL ൞ Temporary Tables ........................................................................................................................ 192
What are Temporary Tables? ...................................................................................................................... 192
Dropping Temporary Tables ........................................................................................................................ 193
39. SQL - Clone Tables ................................................................................................................................ 194
40. SQL - Sub Queries ................................................................................................................................. 197
Subqueries with the SELECT Statement ...................................................................................................... 197
Subqueries with the INSERT Statement ...................................................................................................... 198
Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement ..................................................................................................... 199
Subqueries with the DELETE Statement ...................................................................................................... 200
41. SQL - Using Sequences.......................................................................................................................... 202
Using AUTO_INCREMENT column ............................................................................................................... 202
Obtain AUTO_INCREMENT Values .............................................................................................................. 203
Renumbering an Existing Sequence ............................................................................................................ 203
Starting a Sequence at a Particular Value ................................................................................................... 204
42. SQL - Handling Duplicates .................................................................................................................... 206
43. SQL - Injection ...................................................................................................................................... 209
Preventing SQL Injection ............................................................................................................................. 210
SQL 1 SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion, fetching rows, modifying rows, etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard language, but there are many different versions of the SQL language. SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in a relational database. SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.Also, they are using different dialects, such as:
MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
Oracle using PL/SQL,
MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.Why SQL?
SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages: Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.Allows users to describe the data.
Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data. Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers. Allows users to create and drop databases and tables. Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database. Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.A Brief History of SQL
1970 ± Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational
databases. He described a relational model for databases.1974 ± Structured Query Language appeared.
1978 ± IBM worked to develop Codd's ideas and released a product named
System/R.
1. SQL ൞ Overview
SQL 21986 ± IBM developed the first prototype of relational database and standardized
by ANSI. The first relational database was released by Relational Software which later came to be known as Oracle. When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task. There are various components included in this process.These components are ±
Query Dispatcher
Optimization Engines
Classic Query Engine
SQL Query Engine, etc.
A classic query engine handles all the non-SQL queries, but a SQL query engine won't handle logical files. Following is a simple diagram showing the SQL Architecture: SQL 3 The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be classified into the following groups based on their nature:DDL - Data Definition Language
Command Description
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