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C++ i C++ is a middle-level programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 at Bell Labs. C++ runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various versions of UNIX. This tutorial adopts a simple and practical approach to describe the concepts of C++. This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand the basic to advanced concepts related to C++. Before you begin practicing various examples given in this tutorial, we are making an assumption that you are already aware of some basics, like the computer software installation process and computer programming language.

Copyright 2014 by Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd.

All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. The user of this e-book is prohibited to reuse, retain, copy, distribute or republish any contents or a part of contents of this e-book in any manner without written consent of the publisher. We strive to update the contents of our website and tutorials as timely and as precisely as possible, however, the contents may contain inaccuracies or errors. Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of our website or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover any errors on our website or in this tutorial, please notify us at contact@tutorialspoint.com C++ ii

About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................ i

Audience........................................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites ..................................................................................................................................................... i

Copyright & Disclaimer ..................................................................................................................................... i

1. OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 1

Object-Oriented Programming ........................................................................................................................ 1

Standard Libraries ............................................................................................................................................ 1

The ANSI Standard ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Learning C++ .................................................................................................................................................... 2

2. ENVIRONMENT SETUP ............................................................................................................ 3

Try it Option Online ......................................................................................................................................... 3

3. BASIC SYNTAX ......................................................................................................................... 5

C++ Program Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 5

Compile & Execute C++ Program ...................................................................................................................... 6

Semicolons & Blocks in C++ .............................................................................................................................. 6

C++ Keywords .................................................................................................................................................. 7

4. COMMENTS IN C++ ............................................................................................................... 10

5. DATA TYPES ........................................................................................................................... 11

Primitive Built-in Types .................................................................................................................................. 11

typedef Declarations ..................................................................................................................................... 13

Enumerated Types ......................................................................................................................................... 14

6. VARIABLE TYPES .................................................................................................................... 15

C++ iii

Variable Definition in C++ .............................................................................................................................. 15

Variable Declaration in C++ ............................................................................................................................ 16

Lvalues and Rvalues ....................................................................................................................................... 18

7. VARIABLE SCOPE ................................................................................................................... 19

Local Variables ............................................................................................................................................... 19

Global Variables............................................................................................................................................. 20

Initializing Local and Global Variables ............................................................................................................ 21

8. CONSTANTS/LITERALS ........................................................................................................... 22

Integer Literals ............................................................................................................................................... 22

Floating-point Literals .................................................................................................................................... 22

Boolean Literals ............................................................................................................................................. 23

Character Literals ........................................................................................................................................... 23

String Literals ................................................................................................................................................. 24

Defining Constants ......................................................................................................................................... 25

9. MODIFIER TYPES ................................................................................................................... 27

Type Qualifiers in C++ .................................................................................................................................... 28

10. STORAGE CLASSES ............................................................................................................... 29

The auto Storage Class ................................................................................................................................... 29

The register Storage Class .............................................................................................................................. 29

The static Storage Class ................................................................................................................................. 29

The extern Storage Class ................................................................................................................................ 31

The mutable Storage Class ............................................................................................................................. 32

11. OPERATORS ......................................................................................................................... 33

Arithmetic Operators ..................................................................................................................................... 33

Relational Operators...................................................................................................................................... 35

Logical Operators ........................................................................................................................................... 37

C++ iv

Bitwise Operators .......................................................................................................................................... 39

Assignment Operators ................................................................................................................................... 41

Misc Operators .............................................................................................................................................. 44

Operators Precedence in C++ ......................................................................................................................... 45

12. LOOP TYPES ......................................................................................................................... 48

While Loop .................................................................................................................................................... 49

Loop Control Statements ............................................................................................................................... 57

The Infinite Loop ............................................................................................................................................ 63

13. DECISION-MAKING STATEMENTS ........................................................................................ 65

If Statement ................................................................................................................................................... 66

if...else if...else Statement ............................................................................................................................. 69

Switch Statement .......................................................................................................................................... 71

Nested if Statement ....................................................................................................................................... 73

The ? : Operator ............................................................................................................................................. 76

14. FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 77

Defining a Function ........................................................................................................................................ 77

Function Declarations .................................................................................................................................... 78

Calling a Function .......................................................................................................................................... 78

Function Arguments ...................................................................................................................................... 80

15. NUMBERS ........................................................................................................................... 87

Defining Numbers in C++ ............................................................................................................................... 87

Math Operations in C++ ................................................................................................................................. 88

Random Numbers in C++ ............................................................................................................................... 90

16. ARRAYS ............................................................................................................................... 92

Declaring Arrays ............................................................................................................................................ 92

C++ v

Initializing Arrays ........................................................................................................................................... 92

Accessing Array Elements .............................................................................................................................. 93

Arrays in C++ .................................................................................................................................................. 94

Passing Arrays to Functions ........................................................................................................................... 98

17. STRINGS ............................................................................................................................ 104

The C-Style Character String ........................................................................................................................ 104

The String Class in C++ ................................................................................................................................. 106

18. POINTERS .......................................................................................................................... 108

What are Pointers? ...................................................................................................................................... 108

Using Pointers in C++ ................................................................................................................................... 109

Pointers in C++ ............................................................................................................................................. 110

Null Pointers ................................................................................................................................................ 111

Pointer Arithmetic ....................................................................................................................................... 111

Pointers vs Arrays ........................................................................................................................................ 115

Array of Pointers .......................................................................................................................................... 117

Pointer to a Pointer ..................................................................................................................................... 119

Passing Pointers to Functions ...................................................................................................................... 120

Return Pointer from Functions .................................................................................................................... 123

19. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 126

References vs Pointers ................................................................................................................................. 126

Creating References in C++ .......................................................................................................................... 126

References as Parameters ............................................................................................................................ 127

Reference as Return Value ........................................................................................................................... 129

20. DATE AND TIME ................................................................................................................ 131

Current Date and Time ................................................................................................................................ 132

Format Time using struct tm ........................................................................................................................ 133

C++ vi

21. BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT ....................................................................................................... 135

I/O Library Header Files ............................................................................................................................... 135

The Standard Output Stream (cout) ............................................................................................................. 135

The Standard Input Stream (cin) .................................................................................................................. 136

The Standard Error Stream (cerr) ................................................................................................................. 137

The Standard Log Stream (clog) ................................................................................................................... 137

22. DATA STRUCTURES ............................................................................................................ 139

Defining a Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 139

Accessing Structure Members ...................................................................................................................... 140

Structures as Function Arguments ............................................................................................................... 141

Pointers to Structures .................................................................................................................................. 143

23. CLASSES AND OBJECTS ...................................................................................................... 146

C++ Class Definitions .................................................................................................................................... 146

Define C++ Objects....................................................................................................................................... 146

Classes & Objects in Detail ........................................................................................................................... 148

Class Access Modifiers ................................................................................................................................. 152

The public Members .................................................................................................................................... 153

The private Members .................................................................................................................................. 154

The protected Members .............................................................................................................................. 156

Constructor & Destructor............................................................................................................................. 157

Friend Functions .......................................................................................................................................... 167

Inline Functions ........................................................................................................................................... 168

this Pointer .................................................................................................................................................. 169

Pointer to C++ Classes .................................................................................................................................. 171

Static Members of a Class ............................................................................................................................ 173

Static Function Members ............................................................................................................................. 174

24. INHERITANCE .................................................................................................................... 177

C++ vii

Base & Derived Classes ................................................................................................................................ 177

Access Control and Inheritance .................................................................................................................... 179

Type of Inheritance ...................................................................................................................................... 179

Multiple Inheritance .................................................................................................................................... 180

25. OVERLOADING (OPERATOR & FUNCTION) ........................................................................ 182

Function Overloading in C++ ........................................................................................................................ 182

Overloadable/Non-overloadable Operators ................................................................................................ 186

Operator Overloading Examples .................................................................................................................. 186

Unary Operators Overloading ...................................................................................................................... 187

Increment (++) and Decrement (- -) Operators ............................................................................................. 189

Binary Operators Overloading ..................................................................................................................... 191

Relational Operators Overloading ............................................................................................................... 193

Input/Output Operators Overloading .......................................................................................................... 195

++ and - - Operators Overloading ................................................................................................................. 197

Assignment Operators Overloading ............................................................................................................. 199

Function Call () Operator Overloading ......................................................................................................... 201

Subscripting [ ] Operator Overloading ......................................................................................................... 202

Class Member Access Operator - > Overloading ........................................................................................... 204

26. POLYMORPHISM ............................................................................................................... 208

Virtual Function ........................................................................................................................................... 210

27. DATA ABSTRACTION .......................................................................................................... 212

Access Labels Enforce Abstraction ............................................................................................................... 213

28. DATA ENCAPSULATION ..................................................................................................... 215

29. INTERFACES....................................................................................................................... 218

30. FILES AND STREAMS .......................................................................................................... 221

Opening a File .............................................................................................................................................. 221

C++ viii

Closing a File ................................................................................................................................................ 222

Writing to a File ........................................................................................................................................... 222

File Position Pointers ................................................................................................................................... 224

31. EXCEPTION HANDLING ...................................................................................................... 226

Throwing Exceptions .................................................................................................................................... 226

Catching Exceptions ..................................................................................................................................... 227

C++ Standard Exceptions.............................................................................................................................. 228

Define New Exceptions ................................................................................................................................ 230

32. DYNAMIC MEMORY .......................................................................................................... 232

The new and delete Operators .................................................................................................................... 232

Dynamic Memory Allocation for Arrays ....................................................................................................... 233

Dynamic Memory Allocation for Objects ..................................................................................................... 234

33. NAMESPACES .................................................................................................................... 236

Defining a Namespace ................................................................................................................................. 236

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