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Congressional Research Service

https://crsreports.congress.gov

R46658

Congressional Research Service

SUMMARY

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) and Disability Insurance (DI), commonly referred to on a combined basis as OASDI, are social insurance programs that protect insured workers and their family members against loss of income due to old age, disability, or death. These programs are often referred to as Social Security. Monthly Social Security benefit amounts are determined by federal law. Most Social Security beneficiaries are retired or disabled workers whose monthly benefits depend on their past earnings, the age at which they claimed benefits, and other factors. Benefits are also paid to wo based on the earnings of the insured workers. The computation process involves three main steps:

1. First, a summarized measure of lifetime Social Securitycovered earnings is computed. That measure is called the

average indexed monthly earnings (AIME).

2. Second, a progressive benefit formula is applied to the AIME to compute the primary insurance amount (PIA). The

benefit formula is progressive. As a result, workers with higher AIMEs receive higher Social Security benefits, with

benefits received by people with lower earnings replacing a larger share of career-average earnings.

3. Third, an adjustment may be made based on the age at which a beneficiary chooses to begin receiving benefits. For

retired workers who claim benefits at the full retirement age (FRA) and for disabled workers, the monthly benefit

equals the PIA. Retired workers who claim earlier than the FRA receive monthly benefits lower than the PIA (i.e.,

an actuarial reduction), and those who claim later than the FRA receive benefits higher than the PIA (i.e., a delayed

retirement credit).

Retired-worker benefits can be affected by other adjustments. For example, the windfall elimination provision can reduce

benefits for individuals who receive a pension based on employment not covered by Social Security, and benefits can be

temporarily withheld under the retirement earnings test if a beneficiary under the FRA continues to work and earns above a

certain amount. Although not an adjustment, income tax can affect Social Security benefits and thus income. se can receive a can

Dependent benefits may also be adjusted based on the age at which they are claimed and other factors.

In September 2022, there were approximately 65.8 million Social Security beneficiaries collecting an average monthly

benefit of $1,548. Retired-worker and disabled-worker beneficiaries accounted for 85.1% of the beneficiary population. The

largest single category of beneficiaries was retired workers (73.4%), with an average monthly benefit of $1,674. The second-

largest category was disabled workers (11.7%), with an average monthly benefit of $1,363. Family members of retired,

disabled, or deceased workers accounted for the remainder of the beneficiary population (14.9%). The Social Security

94% of workers, about 182 million, are covered under the

OASDI programs. Because of the number of people receiving benefits, the number of people expected to receive benefits,

-term financial imbalance, there has been some congressional interest in making changes to the benefit formula.

R46658

November 17, 2022

Barry F. Huston

Analyst Social Policy

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service

3Š‹•Žœ

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service 1

1 2 3 4

1 Research suggests that Social Security benefits accounted for most of the decline in poverty from 1967 through 2000.

For more information, see CRS Report R45791, Poverty Among the Population Aged 65 and Older.

2 Social Security Administration (SSA), Office of the Chief Actuary (OCACT), The 2022 Annual Report of the Board

of Trustees of the Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds, June 2,

2022, https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/TR/2022/tr2022.pdf (hereinafter cited as Annual Report). Under current law,

the OASI and DI trust funds are distinct entities and cannot borrow from each other when faced with a funding

shortfall. The shifting of funds between OASI and DI can be done only with authorization from Congress. In the past,

Congress has authorized temporary interfund borrowing among the OASI, DI, and Medicare Hospital Insurance trust

funds, as well as temporary payroll tax reallocations between OASI and DI, to deal with funding shortfalls. Most

recently, under the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015 (P.L. 114-74), Congress authorized a temporary reallocation of

payroll taxes from the OASI fund to the DI fund for calendar years 2016-2018. Because of such actions, the OASI and

DI trust funds are discussed on a combined basis. Separately, the OASI fund is projected to have asset reserves until

2034, at which point continuing income to the fund would be sufficient to pay 77% of OASI scheduled benefits. The DI

fund is projected to have asset reserves throughout the 75-year projection period (2022 Annual Report, p. 6). The 2022

intermediate assumptions reflect the trustees understanding of the status of the Social Security trust funds at the start of

2022. Like the previous year report, the 2022 estimates include potential effects of Coronavirus Disease 2019

(COVID-19). Although the report includes impacts from COVID-19, the impacts are confined to the near term. The

trustees acknowledge that effects from the pandemic, especially in the long term, are subject to a high level of

uncertainty.

3 SSA, OCACT, Scaled Factors for Hypothetical Earnings Examples Under the 2022 Trustees Report Assumptions,

June 2022, at https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/NOTES/ran3/an2022-3.pdf.

4 A maximum earner is a worker who has earnings at or above the contribution and benefit base for each year starting at

age 22 through the year prior to retirement (2022 Annual Report, p. 154). The contribution and benefit base for 2023 is

$160,200 (see SSA, 2023 Social Security Changes, https://www.ssa.gov/news/press/factsheets/colafacts2023.pdf).

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service 2

5 6 7 8 9

5 A list of eligibility requirements for family members is covered in Appendix C. Covered employment is employment

for which earnings are creditable for Social Security purposes (2022 Annual Report, p. 243). The roughly 6% of

workers who are not covered by Social Security are state and local government workers, certain workers employed by

religious groups, and certain noncitizen workers.

6 Social Security Program Fact Sheethttps://www.ssa.gov/oact/FACTS/index.html.

7

compensation plans. It is calculated using some wages that are not subject to the Social Security payroll tax. For more

information on AWI, see CRS In Focus IF11931, Social Security: The Average Wage Index.

8 For more information on survivors benefits, see CRS Report RS22294, Social Security Survivors Benefits.

9 To be eligible for disability benefits, workers must also be found unable to engage in substantial gainful activity. See

CRS Report R44948, Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI): Eligibility,

Benefits, and Financing.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service 3

10 11 12

10 See CRS Report RL32004, Social Security Benefits for Noncitizens.

11 Since 1978, the amount needed to earn a QC has been indexed to changes in the AWI. See

https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/COLA/QC.html. Under current law, the amount needed to earn a QC cannot

decrease. That is, the amount required is the higher of (1) the amount in effect for the calendar year a determination is

mount and the change in the AWI (42 U.S.C. §413(a)).

12 SSA uses the national average wage indexing series to ensure that future benefits reflect the general rise in the

https://www.ssa.gov/oact/COLA/AWI.html.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

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13 Table 1. Total Wage-Indexed Earnings and Average Indexed Monthly Earnings (AIME) for Hypothetical Workers Born in 1953, by Earnings Level

Very Low

Earner

Low

Earner

Medium

Earner

Higher

Earner

Maximum

Earner

Total Earnings from Highest

35 Years of Wage-Indexed

Earnings

$391,406.63 $704,280.24 $1,565,493.44 $2,504,787.60 $3,807,774.57

AIME 931.00 1,676.00 3,727.00 5,963.00 9,066.00

Source: CRS.

Note: Wage-indexed earnings are rounded to the nearest cent, and AIMEs are rounded down to the nearest

dollar (see 20 C.F.R. §404.211). 13

elapsed years equals the calendar years after an individual turns 21 years old through the year before the individual first

becomes eligible for disability benefits with a minimum of two. For every five elapsed years, there is one disability

dropout year up to a maximum of five. In addition, people with fewer than three disability dropout years may be

credited with up to two additional dropout years based on the care of a child for up to a total of three dropout years. See

CRS Report R43370, Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI): Becoming Insured, Calculating Benefit Payments,

and the Effect of Dropout Year Provisions.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

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C›"-Š›¢ȱ—œž›Š—ŒŽȱ -˜ž— 14 15 16 17

14 The bend points used in the PIA formula are rounded to the nearest dollar (42 U.S.C. §415(a)(1)(B)(iii)).

15 Bend points are indexed to the AWI and can decrease when AWI decreases (42 U.S.C. §415(a)(1)(B)). See Table B-

1 for a list of historical bend point values. For more information on effects of wage indexing and price indexing on

benefits, see CRS Report R46819, Social Security: The Effects of Wage and Price Indexing on Benefits.

16

17 For the 1953 birth cohort, a hypothetical low earner would have paid a lifetime total of $28,559.31 in Social Security

payroll taxes on total nominal earnings of $468,574.69, whereas a hypothetical maximum earner would have paid a

lifetime total of $154,842.89 in payroll taxes on total nominal earnings of $2,549,600.00. Both workers would have

been subject to the same employee payroll tax rate. The hypothetical maximum earner would have received larger

benefits based on higher earnings subject to the payroll tax. Social Security benefits themselves may also be subject to

federal income tax. For more information, see CRS Report RL32552, Social Security: Taxation of Benefits.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service 6

Table 2. Computation of Primary Insurance Amounts (PIAs) for Hypothetical

Workers Born in 1953, by Earnings Levels

Factors

Three Brackets

of Average

Indexed

Monthly

Earnings

(AIME) in 2015

PIAs for Hypothetical Workers

Very Low

Earner Low Earner Medium

Earner

High

Earner

Maximum

Earner

AIME of

$920.00

AIME of

$1,656.00

AIME of

$3,680.00

AIME of

$5,888.00

AIME of

$8,890.00

90% first $826 of

AIME, plus $743.40 $743.40 $743.40 $743.40 $743.40 32%

AIME over $826

and through $4,980, plus

33.60 272.00 928.32 1,329.28 1,329.28

15% AIME over $4,980 0.00 0.00 0.00 147.45 612.90

Total: JRUNHU·V 3H$ (by

law, rounded down to nearest

10 cents)

777.00 1,015.40 1,671.70 2,220.10 2,685.50

PIA as Percent of AIME 83% 61% 45% 37% 30%

Source: CRS.

Notes: The bend points shown in the table apply to workers who first become eligible in 2015. See Table B-1

for historical values of bend points. Under current law, PIA is rounded down to the nearest dime (42 U.S.C.

§415(a)(1)(A)).

18 Table 3. Full Retirement Age (FRA) by Year of Birth

Year of Birth

Year of Earliest Eligibility

Age FRA

1937 or earlier 1999 or earlier 65

1938 2000 65 and 2 months

1939 2001 65 and 4 months

18 20 C.F.R. §404.281.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

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Year of Birth

Year of Earliest Eligibility

Age FRA

1940 2002 65 and 6 months

1941 2003 65 and 8 months

1942 2004 65 and 10 months

1943-1954 2005-2016 66

1955 2017 66 and 2 months

1956 2018 66 and 4 months

1957 2019 66 and 6 months

1958 2020 66 and 8 months

1959 2021 66 and 10 months

1960 or later 2022 or later 67

Source: 6RŃLMO 6HŃXULP\ $GPLQLVPUMPLRQ 2IILŃH RI POH FOLHI $ŃPXMU\ ´1RUPMO 5HPLUHPHQP $JHµ

19 20

19 Said differently, adjustments for early or late benefit claiming are intended to be actuarially equivalent. Under

average life expectancies, early claimants receive smaller benefits but over a longer period of time, whereas late

claimants receive higher benefits for a shorter period of time. Average life expectancies vary across demographic

groups such as age, race, and sex. For more information, see CRS Report R44846, The Growing Gap in Life

Expectancy by Income: Recent Evidence and Implications for the Social Security Retirement Age. 20

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

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21
22

21 Social Security payments always reflect the benefits due for the preceding month.

22 SSA, 2023 Social Security Changes, https://www.ssa.gov/news/press/factsheets/colafacts2023.pdf. If the CPI-W

does not increase over the relevant period, no COLA is payable. No COLA was payable in January 2010 or January

2011, because the CPI-W for the third quarter of 2009 and for the third quarter of 2010 were both lower than the CPI-

W for the third quarter of 2008. No COLA was payable in January 2016 because the CPI-W for the third quarter of

2015 was lower than the CPI-W for the third quarter of 2014. For details, see CRS Report 94-803, Social Security:

Cost-of-Living Adjustments.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service 9

23
Table 4. Initial Monthly Benefit Amounts for Hypothetical Workers Born in 1953, by

Earnings Level and Claiming Age

Primary insurance amounts (PIAs) adjusted for claiming age relative to full retirement age (FRA) and cost-

of-living adjustments (COLAs) Year/

Claiming

Age

Percent

of PIA COLA Very Low

Earner

Low

Earner

Medium

Earner

High

Earner

Maximum

Earner

Hypothetical Worker PIAs from Table 2.

$777.00 $1,015.40 $1,671.70 $2,220.10 $2,685.50

Benefit Amounts

2015/62 75.0% - 582.00 761.00 1,253.00 1,665.00 2,014.00

2016/63 80.0% 0.0% 621.00 812.00 1,337.00 1,776.00 2,148.00

2017/64 86.6% 0.3% 675.00 882.00 1,453.00 1,929.00 2,334.00

2018/65 93.3% 2.0% 741.00 969.00 1,596.00 2,119.00 2,564.00

2019/66 100.0% 2.8% 817.00 1,067.00 1,758.00 2,334.00 2,824.00

2020/67 108.0% 1.6% 896.00 1,171.00 1,929.00 2,562.00 3,099.00

2021/68 116.0% 1.3% 975.00 1,274.00 2,099.00 2,787.00 3,371.00

2022/69 124.0% 5.9% 1,014.00 1,443.00 2,376.00 3,155.00 3,817.00

2023/70 132.0% 8.7% 1,277.00 1,670.00 2,749.00 3,651.00 4,416.00

Source: CRS.

Notes: Under current law, monthly benefit amounts are rounded down to the nearest dollar (42 U.S.C.

§415(g)).

23 The cumulative effect of the COLAs shown in Table 4 is 24.60%.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

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24
Table 5. Wage-Indexed Earnings, Average Indexed Monthly Earnings (AIMEs), and Primary Insurance Amounts (PIAs) for Hypothetical Earners Born in 1953, by

Earnings Level and Years of Earnings

Very Low

Earner

Low

Earner

Medium

Earner High Earner Maximum

Earner

Scenario A (from Table 1 and Table 2)

Workers in Scenario A have 41 years of covered employment (ages 21 through 61, inclusive), and the highest 35

years of covered employment are used to calculate benefits.

Total Earnings from

Highest 35 Years of

Waged Indexed Earnings

$391,406.63 $704,280.24 $1,565,493.44 $2,504,787.60 $3,807,774.57

AIME 931.00 1,676.00 3,727.00 5,963.00 9,066.00

PIA 777.00 1,015.40 1,671.70 2,220.10 2,685.50

PIA as Percent of AIME 83% 61% 45% 37% 30%

24 Actuarial equivalence is dependent on life expectancies, which are known to vary by demographic group. See

footnote 19.

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Scenario B (Scenario A with highest year of indexed earnings removed)

Workers in Scenario B have 40 years of covered employment, and the highest 35 years of covered employment

are used to calculate benefits.

Total Earnings from

Highest 35 Years of

Waged Indexed Earnings

$386,468.93 $695,392.38 $1,545,742.65 $2,473,231.22 $3,779,564.02

AIME 920.00 1,655.00 3,680.00 5,888.00 8,998.00

PIA 773.40 1,008.60 1,656.60 2,208.80 2,675.30

PIA as Percent of AIME 84% 61% 45% 38% 30%

Percent Reduction in PIA

from Scenario A 0.5% 0.7% 0.9% 0.5% 0.4% Scenario C (Scenario A with highest seven years of indexed earnings removed)

Workers in Scenario C have 34 years of covered employment. Their benefit calculations include one year of zero

earnings.

Total Earnings from

Highest 35 Years of

Waged Indexed Earnings

$337,630.61 $607,636.03 $1,350,748.49 $2,161,168.73 $3,462,609.85

AIME 803.00 1,446.00 3,216.00 5,145.00 8,244.00

PIA 722.70 941.80 1,508.20 2,097.40 2,562.20

PIA as Percent of AIME 90% 65% 47% 41% 31%

Percent Reduction in PIA

from Scenario A 7.0% 7.2% 9.8% 5.5% 4.6%

Source: CRS.

Note: Wage-indexed earnings are rounded to the nearest cent, and AIMEs are rounded down to the nearest

dollar (see 20 C.F.R. §404.211). Under current law, PIA is rounded down to the nearest dime (42 U.S.C.

§415(a)(1)(A)).

25
26
27

25 Monthly Statistical Snapshot, September 2022, Table 2. See the latest edition of the Monthly Statistical

Snapshot at https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/quickfacts/stat_snapshot/.

26 The computation of dependent benefits may be quite complex. For additional details and information on other

CRS Report R42035, Social Security Primer.

27 Someone with an auxiliary benefit higher than his or her retired-worker benefit is referred to as dually entitled and

receives his or her retired-worker benefit plus a reduced auxiliary benefit amount equal to the full auxiliary benefit

minus the retired-worker benefit, in essence receiving the higher auxiliary benefit amount. For more information on

dual entitlement, see CRS In Focus IF10738, Social Security Dual Entitlement.

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

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28
29
30
31
32
28

age. For more information, see CRS Report R41479, Social Security: Revisiting Benefits for Spouses and Survivors.

29 Social Security Act, Title II, §203.

30 https://www.socialsecurity.gov/OACT/COLA/familymax.html.

31 Benefits for a divorced beneficiary are not taken into account for purposes of the family maximum. See SSA,

Family Benefits Where a Divorced Spouse or a Surviving Divorced Spouse is Entitled, https://secure.ssa.gov/apps10/

poms.nsf/lnx/0300615682.

32 See CRS Report 98-35, Social Security: The Windfall Elimination Provision (WEP).

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33
34

33 See CRS Report RL32453, Social Security: The Government Pension Offset (GPO).

34 See CRS Report R41242, Social Security Retirement Earnings Test: How Earnings Affect Benefits.

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Appendix A.

35
Figure A-1. Scaled Factors by Hypothetical Earnings Level and Age

Percent of Average Wage Index (AWI)

Source: OCACT, Scaled Factors for Hypothetical Earnings Examples Under the 2022 Trustees Report Assumptions, June 2022, Table 6, https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/NOTES/ran3/an2022-3.pdf. Notes: There is no scaled factor for a maximum earner.

35 OCACT, Scaled Factors for Hypothetical Earnings Examples Under the 2022 Trustees Report Assumptions. See

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Table A-1. Distribution of Average-Indexed Monthly Earnings (AIMEs) of Actual Workers Retiring in Years 2016-2021, Relative to AIMEs for Hypothetical Workers

Retiring in 2021

Percent with AIME Less Than

AIME for Hypothetical Case

Percent with AIME Closest

to AIME for Hypothetical Casea

Hypothetical Workerb

(Career-Average Earnings)c All Males All

Females

All

Workers

All Males All

Females

All

Workers

Very Low

($13,845) 7.7% 15.3% 11.5% 12.1% 23.3% 17.7% Low ($24,922) 16.2 31.4 23.7 15.9 29.3 22.5

Medium

($55,381) 42.3 70.2 56.1 30.0 30.7 30.3 High ($88,610) 71.3 91.1 81.1 27.0 13.5 20.3

Maximum

($136,833) 100.0 100.0 100.0 15.0 3.1 9.1

Source: OCACT, Scaled Factors for Hypothetical Earnings Examples Under the 2022 Trustees Report Assumptions,

Actuarial Note Number 2022.3, June 2022, Table 1, https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/NOTES/ran3/an2022-3.pdf.

Notes: Worker distributions include individuals who are dually entitled or may become dually entitled to a

higher benefit in the future NMVHG RQ MQRPOHU RRUNHU·V HMUQLQJV UHŃRUGB If dually entitled workers were excluded

from the above distribution, a higher percentage of the remaining workers would have earnings closer to the

higher-level hypothetical workers. For more information on dual entitlement, see CRS In Focus IF10738, Social

Security Dual Entitlement.

a. Rounded values do not necessarily sum to 100%. The percentage of workers with AIME values closest to

that of the hypothetical maximum worker is expected to decline in future years. This is due to a significant

increase in the OASDI maximum taxable earnings, relative to the AWI, in 1981 and a smaller increase in

1990.

b. A hypothetical worker is assumed to have a long and consistent career with earnings at each age from 21

through 64.

c. Career-average earnings of hypothetical scaled workers retiring at age 62 in 2021. Earnings are wage-

indexed to 2020 in this calculation.

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Table A-2. Hypothetical Wages for 1953 Birth Cohort by Earnings Level

Year Age Very Low

Earner

Low

Earner

Medium

Earner

High

Earner

Maximum

Earner

1974 21 578.21 1,035.97 2,304.83 3,686.12 13,200.00

1975 22 759.52 1,363.69 3,038.08 4,850.58 14,100.00

1976 23 1,024.14 1,845.30 4,105.78 6,569.25 15,300.00

1977 24 1,290.89 2,327.51 5,183.10 8,283.19 16,500.00

1978 25 1,572.85 2,839.57 6,301.95 10,081.01 17,700.00

1979 26 1,882.63 3,386.44 7,530.53 12,053.43 22,900.00

1980 27 2,214.88 3,991.79 8,884.56 14,215.29 25,900.00

1981 28 2,616.89 4,710.40 10,467.56 16,748.09 29,700.00

1982 29 2,920.80 5,260.35 11,683.20 18,701.83 32,400.00

1983 30 3,215.48 5,775.67 12,846.68 20,542.50 35,700.00

1984 31 3,533.58 6,373.35 14,150.46 22,637.50 37,800.00

1985 32 3,818.71 6,863.58 15,241.19 24,392.64 39,600.00

1986 33 4,035.98 7,257.84 16,143.94 25,826.83 42,000.00

1987 34 4,403.94 7,923.40 17,597.32 28,174.13 43,800.00

1988 35 4,717.51 8,487.64 18,870.02 30,180.44 45,000.00

1989 36 4,984.69 8,984.50 19,958.85 31,938.18 48,000.00

1990 37 5,299.05 9,546.70 21,217.23 33,960.19 51,300.00

1991 38 5,583.77 10,033.34 22,313.27 35,705.59 53,400.00

1992 39 5,940.27 10,687.91 23,761.10 38,026.93 55,500.00

1993 40 6,060.76 10,895.49 24,219.91 38,770.35 57,600.00

1994 41 6,270.93 11,306.68 25,107.48 40,190.97 60,600.00

1995 42 6,571.71 11,858.72 26,336.23 42,123.15 61,200.00

1996 43 6,944.93 12,516.41 27,831.53 44,520.08 62,700.00

1997 44 7,405.02 13,329.04 29,647.51 47,446.98 65,400.00

1998 45 7,850.31 14,113.24 31,372.39 50,190.04 68,400.00

1999 46 8,318.27 14,960.69 33,273.07 53,230.81 72,600.00

2000 47 8,810.42 15,852.33 35,209.53 56,303.09 76,200.00

2001 48 9,020.61 16,230.51 36,082.42 57,712.13 80,400.00

2002 49 9,111.07 16,393.28 36,411.04 58,224.41 84,900.00

2003 50 9,333.80 16,759.96 37,267.06 59,647.73 87,000.00

2004 51 9,732.05 17,503.44 38,928.22 62,278.02 87,900.00

2005 52 10,051.20 18,069.99 40,167.85 64,298.12 90,000.00

2006 53 10,435.88 18,784.59 41,782.17 66,828.29 94,200.00

2007 54 10,828.67 19,475.44 43,274.27 69,254.99 97,500.00

2008 55 10,953.77 19,675.45 43,773.73 70,021.44 102,000.00

2009 56 10,544.31 18,971.61 42,177.23 67,499.85 106,800.00

Social Security: Benefit Calculation

Congressional Research Service 17

Year Age Very Low

Earner

Low

Earner

Medium

Earner

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