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Edited by Michèle Barbier

& Bénédicte Charrier PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES

FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

COST Action FA 1406

TO BE CITED AS:

Michèle Barbier, Bénédicte Charrier, Rita Araujo, Susan L. Holdt, Bertrand Jacquemin & Céline

Rebours (2019) PEGASUS - PHYCOMORPH European Guidelines for a Sustainable Aquaculture of Seaweeds, COST Action FA1406 (M. Barbier and B. Charrier, Eds), Roscoff, France. https://doi.org/10.21411/2c3w-yc73

COST, Avenue Louise 149

1050 Brussels, Belgium

T +32 (0)2 533 3800

www.cost.eu Cover picture: Photo credit: Zukiman Mohamad from Pexels

Funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework

Programme of the European Union

PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit the following website http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO

Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.

This document is based upon work from COST Action PHYCOMORPH FA 1406, (www.phycomorph.org) supported by COST (www.cost.eu). COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) is a funding agency for research and innovation networks. Our Actions help connect research initiatives across Europe and enable scientists to grow their ideas by sharing them with their peers.

Editorial and graphic design: Michèle Barbier, Institute for Science & Ethics, 20 avenue Mont Rabeau, F-

06200, Nice (Tel: +336 3307 9899 | www.sciencethics.org).

PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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FULL AUTHORSHIPS

Michèle Barbier1, Bénédicte Charrier2, Rita Araújo3, Susan L. Holdt4, Bertrand

Jacquemin5 and Céline Rebours6.

1 Institute for Science & Ethics, France,

2 Station Biologique, CNRS-Sorbonne University, France,

3 European Commission ʹ DG JRC ʹ ISPRA,

4 The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark,

6 Møreforsking Ålesund AS, Norway, .

With contributions in one or several chapters from:

Helena Abreu, ALGAplus, Portugal;

Jaume Alberti, UNESCO Chair in Life Cycle and Climate Change, ESCI-UPF;

Isabel Azevedo, CIIMAR, Portugal;

Sara Barrento, University of Porto, Portugal;

Suzannah-Lynn Billing, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK;

Tjeerd Bouma, NIOZ, Netherlands;

Annette Bruhn, Aarhus University, Denmark;

Alejandro Buschmann, Universidad de Los Lagos, Chile; Iona Campbell, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK; Thierry Chopin, University of New Brunswick, Canada;

Olivier de Clerck, University of Gent, Belgium;

Elizabeth Cottier-Cook, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK; Alan Critchley, Verschuren Centre for Sustainability in Energy and Environment, Cape Breton

University, Canada;

Maeve Edwards, Irish Seaweed Consultancy, Ireland; Jan Emblemsvåg, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway; Aschwin Engelen, CCMAR, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal;

Jon Funderud, Seaweed Energy Solution, Norway;

Claire Gachon, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK; PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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Alexander Golberg, Tel Aviv University, Israel;

Aleksander Handå, SINTEF, Norway;

Jos Heldens, Hortimare, Netherlands;

Anicia Hurtado, Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries,

Philippines;

Eun Kyoung Hwang, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Korea;

Kapilkumar Ingle, Tel Aviv University, Israel;

Leila Ktari, INSTM ʹ National Institute of Marine Sciences et Technologies, Tunisia; Rafael Loureiro, Winston-Salem State University, USA; Adrian Macleod, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK; Nagwa G. Mohammady, Faculty of Science Muharem Bey, Alexandria University, Egypt; Michéal Mac Monagail, National University of Ireland, Ireland; Valéria Montalescot, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK; Pedro Murúa Andrade, Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK;

Frank Neumann, Seaweed Energy Solution, Norway;

Amir Neori, Morris Kahn Marine Research Station, University of Haifa, Israel; Sotiris Orfanidis, Fisheries Research Institute (HAO Demeter), Greece; Hilde-Gunn Opsahl Sorteberg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway; Shaojun Pang, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; César Peteiro, IEO - Instituto Español de Oceanografia, Spain; Dagmar Stengel, Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Ireland; Pierrick Stévant, Møreforsking Ålesund AS, Norway; Eric Tamigneaux, CÉGEP-GÎM, École des Pêches et de l'Aquaculture du Québec, Canada; Klaas Timmermans, NIOZ - Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Netherlands; Julio A. Vásquez, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile;

Florian Weinberger, GEOMAR, Germany;

Thomas Wichard, IAAC, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany;

Charles Yarish, University of Connecticut, USA

and

Global Seaweed-STAR Team

Latin Seaweed network

PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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PREAMBLE

Macroalgae, or seaweeds, are multicellular ʹ usually macroscopic ʹ plant-like organisms that generally

live attached to rock or other hard substrata in coastal areas. There are about 10,000 species of algae,

of which 6,500 are red algae (also named Rhodophyta), 2,000 are brown algae (Phaeophyceae), and 1

500 are green algae (Chlorophyta and Charophytes). These three groups have very distinct evolutionary

histories and display specific ultrastructural and biochemical features (e.g. pigments). Seaweeds are increasingly employed as feedstock around the world, with an annual production of 30Mt seaweed-derived compounds (cosmetics, food) are on the rise in Europe. However, the production of

Europe lags behind that of Asian countries despite its large exclusive economic zone, its high seaweed

biodiversity and its international leadership in fundamental research on macroalgae. Drawing on our long-term experience in plant production and domestication in general, as well as on current knowledge of European and worldwide marine ecology, climate and trade, we explore the reasons for this lag, and offer recommendations for improving seaweed cultivation and harvest.

Based on a detailed analysis of current seaweed aquaculture practices, regulations, health benefits and

consumer demands, these guidelines aim to foster sustainability and protection of the marine

environment. These guidelines also include expert opinions and assessments from the academic, private

and associative sectors, based mainly in Europe, but also on other continents. With this wide scope and

using a field-based and scientific approach, we have aimed to produce a robust prospective reference document to support policy-makers and the elaboration of future European regulations. Station Biologique de Roscoff, CNRS-Sorbonne Université, France PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES

These guidelines are fully in line with the recommendations of the United Nations Policy Brief (Cottier-

Cook et al. 2016). This document specifically aims to better understand the current situation in Europe

in terms of seaweed cultivation and production, food safety and security, and legislation, with details on

the licensing process in the main producing countries. It also identifies the main bottlenecks preventing

industrial development. These guidelines should be considered as scientific advice to help all stakeholders in the sector to understand the different aspects of seaweed aquaculture that need to be taken into account for

sustainable development in Europe, and to incite large-scale reflection on this theme among producers,

policy makers, national authorities and scientists.

Inter alia, fine details are provided on the legislation and regulations that currently apply to the

production and consumption of seaweeds as a food or food supplement. These paragraphs should be taken into account by policy-makers when considering regulations.

The state of play of production levels in the different European countries is provided, highlighting some

mismatches between governance, the licensing process and industry. National aquaculture representatives should review these paragraphs. As Phycomorph is a network of experts mainly specialised in genetics and seaweed life cycles, the

scientific focus is on the impact of the cultivation method on the environment: what is grown and how

it is grown, highlighting the risk of a loss of local biodiversity. The second priority is food security.

In addition, these guidelines propose details on directions to be followed by research programmes that

should be implemented to fill identified gaps in scientific knowledge regarding the domestication, cultivation, production and safe consumption of seaweeds.

All these different recommendations help lift the veil on seaweed aquaculture and identify the ground

yet to be covered in order to free up its development to support the related economies while preserving

our environment. Dr Michèle Barbier, Institute for Science & Ethics, France PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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PEGASUS ʹ PHYCOMORPH EUROPEAN GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE OF SEAWEEDS

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CONTENTS

GLOSSARY ʹ DEFINITION OF TERMS ...................................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER I - SEAWEED AS AN OPPORTUNITY TO MEET HUMAN NEEDS ................................................................ 17

I - ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE IN MARINE ECOSYSTEMS ...................................................................... 18

I.1. STRUCTURING SPECIES IN COASTAL FOOD WEBS AND HABITATS .............................................................................. 18

I.2. COASTAL DEFENCE ....................................................................................................................................... 18

I.3. CARBON SEQUESTRATION .............................................................................................................................. 19

II - SEAWEEDS, A RESOURCE FOR MULTIPLE HUMAN NEEDS ................................................................................ 20

II.1. HUMAN HEALTH AND WELLBEING ................................................................................................................... 20

II.2. FOOD ...................................................................................................................................................... 21

II.3. AGRICULTURE APPLICATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 23

II.4. BIOPLASTICS .............................................................................................................................................. 25

II.5. BIOREFINERIES ........................................................................................................................................... 25

II.6. ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER II - ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SEAWEED ........................................................................................... 29

I- USE OF SEAWEED AS FOOD, A LONG TRADITION................................................................................................ 30

II - ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE ON THE GLOBAL LEVEL ............................................................................................ 30

II.1. HIGH- & MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES ............................................................................................................ 33

II.2. LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES ............................................................................................................................. 36

II.3. RELEVANCE FOR THE UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS .......................................................... 38

II.4. INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL CONVENTIONS FOR BIODIVERSITY ......................................................................... 40

III - SEAWEED PRODUCTION IN EUROPE ................................................................................................................ 41

III.1. HARVESTING AND CULTIVATION .................................................................................................................... 41

III.2. AGENDA FOR THE EUROPEAN BIO- ECONOMY .................................................................................................. 44

CHAPTER III ʹ SEAWEED PRODUCTION - CULTIVATION ........................................................................................ 53

I - SOURCING ......................................................................................................................................................... 56

I.1. ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED STRAINS ..................................................................................................................... 56

I.2. SELECTION OF TRAITS OF INTEREST AND IMPROVEMENT OF STRAINS ....................................................................... 58

I.3. IMPROVEMENT OF STRAINS ............................................................................................................................ 58

I.4. STRAIN COLLECTIONS .................................................................................................................................... 61

II - CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES .............................................................................................................................. 62

II.1. AT-SEA SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................................................... 62

II.2. LAND-BASED SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................. 63

II.3. HATCHERIES ............................................................................................................................................... 63

II.4. FORCED CULTIVATION .................................................................................................................................. 64

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II.5. INTEGRATED MULTI-TROPHIC AQUACULTURE................................................................................................... 64

II.6. INTENSIVE FARMING .................................................................................................................................... 67

II.7. WHICH TECHNIQUES FOR THE FUTURE? ........................................................................................................... 67

III - PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY ʹ ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ........................................................................... 68

IV - TIMESCALE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL SEAWEED CULTIVATION ............................................ 70

V - PRODUCT PROCESSING AND MARKET SUPPLY ................................................................................................. 71

V.1. DRYING .................................................................................................................................................... 71

V.2. ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION ......................................................................................................................... 72

V.3. FREEZING .................................................................................................................................................. 73

VI. AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... 73

CHAPTER IV ʹ CHALLENGES IN THE SEAWEED-CULTIVATION PROCESS ................................................................. 75

I - SOURCING ........................................................................................................................................................ 76

I.1.ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED STRAINS ...................................................................................................................... 76

I.2. ATTAINING THE ͞BEST CULTIVAR͗͟ SELECTION OF TRAITS OF INTEREST & IMPROVEMENT OF STRAINS ............................ 82

I.3. STRAIN COLLECTIONS .................................................................................................................................... 83

II - CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES .............................................................................................................................. 84

II.1. OFFSHORE FARMING CHALLENGES .................................................................................................................. 84

II.2. DISEASE RISKS ............................................................................................................................................ 84

III - PROCESSING AND MARKET SUPPLY ................................................................................................................. 87

IV - RECOMMENDATIONS ON SEAWEED CULTIVATION ........................................................................................ 87

CHAPTER V - CHALLENGES IN MARKET ECONOMY AND REGULATION .................................................................. 91

I - RELEVANT EUROPEAN LEGISLATION ................................................................................................................. 92

II - NATIONAL AQUACULTURE REGULATIONS AND STRATEGIC PLANS .................................................................. 96

II.1. Norway ...................................................................................................................................................... 96

II.2. France ........................................................................................................................................................ 97

II.3. SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................................. 98

II.4. PORTUGAL............................................................................................................................................... 100

II.5. DENMARK ............................................................................................................................................... 101

II.6. REPUBLIC OF IRELAND ................................................................................................................................ 103

II.7. Spain ........................................................................................................................................................ 104

III- COMMERCIALISATION.................................................................................................................................... 105

III.1. REGULATORY LIMITATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 105

III.2. TERMINOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ 106

IV - GLOBAL MARKET ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................... 106

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V- RECOMMENDATIONS ON LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS .......................................................................... 107

CHAPTER VI ʹ CHALLENGES IN FOOD SAFETY ...................................................................................................... 111

I- LIST OF EDIBLE SPECIES ..................................................................................................................................... 112

I.1. REVIEW OF EXISTING DOCUMENTATION IN THE EU/NOVEL SPECIES ...................................................................... 112

II.2. SPECIES IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................................................. 116

II.3. HOW TO DEAL WITH IMPORTED GOODS AND SPECIES? ...................................................................................... 117

II. QUALITY PATTERNS .......................................................................................................................................... 117

II.1. POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS AND PRODUCT SHELF-LIFE .................................................................................... 117

II.2. NUTRITIONAL VALUES ................................................................................................................................ 118

III - SOURCES OF POTENTIAL CONTAMINATION .................................................................................................. 121

III.1. MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION ........................................................................................................... 121

III.2. HEAVY METALS, CHEMICALS AND OTHER MOLECULES OF CONCERNS ................................................................... 122

IV- STANDARDISATION AND CERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................... 126

IV.1. STANDARDISATION ................................................................................................................................... 126

IV.2. ORGANIC CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................... 127

V- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FOOD SAFETY ...................................................................................................... 129

CHAPTER VII ʹRESEARCH PROGRAMMES TO SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SEAWEED

I- BIOLOGICAL & ECOLOGICAL CHALLENGES........................................................................................................ 135

I.1. HOW TO CONTROL THE GENETICS OF SEAWEEDS ............................................................................................... 135

I.2. PHYSIOLOGY OF SEAWEEDS: IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON PHENOTYPIC TRAITS ...................................... 140

II.1 GENETIC DISPERSION .................................................................................................................................. 144

II.2. IMTA: SEAWEED-(SHELL)FISH CO-CULTURE ................................................................................................... 144

II.3. IMPACT ON ANIMAL WILDLIFE ...................................................................................................................... 145

III- TECHNICAL SCIENCES AND BIOTECHNOLOGIES .............................................................................................. 146

III.1. GEOGRAPHICAL MAPPING .......................................................................................................................... 146

III.2. CULTIVATION-TECHNIQUE ENGINEERING: ADHESION ON ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATES .................................................. 146

III.3. BIOREFINERY (PROTEINS, PIGMENTS, FATTY ACIDS, VITAMINS, ANTIOXIDANTS) ..................................................... 147

IV- FOOD SECURITY AND MEDICAL CONCERN ..................................................................................................... 148

IV.1. HEALTH ................................................................................................................................................. 148

IV.2. BIOACTIVITY/BIOFUNCTIONALITY ................................................................................................................ 148

IV.3. BIOPROSPECTING ..................................................................................................................................... 150

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CHAPTER VIII ʹCONCLUSIONS - SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF

SEAWEED AQUACULTURE IN EUROPE ................................................................................................................. 153

I- REMEDIATION ROLE ......................................................................................................................................... 155

II- MARKET DIMENSION ....................................................................................................................................... 155

III- EUROPEAN PRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 156

IV- CULTIVATION OF SEAWEEDS .......................................................................................................................... 156

IV.1. CULTIVATION AT SEA ................................................................................................................................ 156

IV.2. CULTIVATION ON LAND ............................................................................................................................ 159

IV.3. IMTA ................................................................................................................................................... 159

IV.4. SELECTION PROGRAMMES ......................................................................................................................... 159

IV.5. PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES ...................................................................................................................... 159

IV.6 BIOBANKS AT REGIONAL TECHNICAL CENTRES ................................................................................................. 159

IV.7. NATIONAL INTEGRATED GOVERNANCE ......................................................................................................... 160

IV.8. TRACEABILITY AND CONTROL OF ORIGINS ...................................................................................................... 160

IV.9. CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................................................ 160

V- SEAWEEDS AS FOOD IN LEGISLATION ............................................................................................................. 162

V.1 NUTRITIONAL VALUE .................................................................................................................................. 163

V.2 COMPOUNDS FROM SEAWEEDS .................................................................................................................... 163

V.3 NOVEL FOODS LIST ..................................................................................................................................... 163

V.4 LEGISLATION ON SEAWEEDS AS A SAFE FOOD ................................................................................................... 164

V.5 PRESERVATION OF SEAWEEDS FOR FOOD ........................................................................................................ 165

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 169

COPYRIGHTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 169

REGULATIONS AND LEGAL DOCUMENTATIONS USED......................................................................................... 171

CITED LITERATURE .............................................................................................................................................. 173

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GLOSSARY ʹ DEFINITION OF TERMS

Alien: A species, subspecies or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution;

includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and

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