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Complement Clauses and Complementation Systems:

A Cross-Linguistic Study of Grammatical Organization Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doctor philosophiae (Dr. phil.) von

Karsten Schmidtke-Bode, M.A.

geb. am 26.06.1981 in Eisenach

Gutachter:

Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 16.12.2014

Contents

Abbreviations and notational conventions iii

1 Introduction 1

2 The phenomenon of complementation 7

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Argument status 9

2.2.1 Complement clauses and argument-structure typology 10

2.2.2 On the notion of 'argument" 21

2.3 On the notion of 'clause" 26

2.3.1 Complementation constructions as biclausal units 27

2.3.2 The internal structure of clauses 31

2.4 The semantic content of complement clauses 34

2.5 Environments of complementation 36

2.5.1 Predicate classes as environments of complementation 37

2.5.2 Environments studied in the present work 39

3 Data and methods 48

3.1 Sampling and sources of information 48

3.2 Selection and nature of the data points 53

3.3 Storage and analysis of the data 59

4 The internal structure of complementation patterns 62

4.1 Introduction 62

4.2 The morphological status of the predicate 64

4.2.1 Nominalization 65

4.2.2 Converbs 68

4.2.3 Participles 70

4.2.4 Bare verb stems 71

4.2.5 Other dependent forms 72

4.2.6 Distributional aspects of the different verb forms 74

4.2.7 Theoretical aspects of the different verb forms 77

4.3 Predicate modification 78

4.3.1 Tense-aspect-mood (TAM) inflection 78

4.3.2 Manner satellites 85

4.4 Actant modification 86

4.4.1 The coding of the complement subject 87

4.4.1.1 Same-subject contexts 87

4.4.1.2 Different-subject contexts 94

Excursus: Raising 98

4.4.2 The coding of the internal direct object 108

4.4.3 Finding patterns of argument-structural coding 110

4.5 Boundary-marking devices and nominal flagging 114

4.6 Degrees of de-/re-categorization in complementation systems 121

| ii

5 Syntagmatic relations to the matrix 129

5.1 Introduction 129

5.2 The positional patterns of S-clauses 130

5.2.1 Establishing positioning patterns 130

5.2.2 The conformity type 135

5.2.3 Partial or full type shifts 138

5.2.4 Adding flexibility 142

5.2.5 Constraining flexibility 145

5.3 The positional patterns of A-clauses 147

5.4 Discussion 154

5.5 Placeholders of subject clauses in the matrix 171

6 Selectional relations to the matrix 181

6.1 Introduction 181

6.2 Determining co-occurrence patterns 182

6.3 Productivity and coding preferences of CTP classes 189

6.3.1 Overview 189

6.3.2 Environments in P-function 194

6.3.3 Environments in S-function 201

6.3.4 Environments in A-function 210

6.3.5 Summary: General findings 220

6.4 Syntactic functions of complementation patterns 229

6.4.1 Complementation patterns as objects 229

6.4.2 Complementation patterns as subjects 234

7 Emergence, diffusion and systemic organization of complementation patterns 242

7.1 Introduction 242

7.2 Emergence and diffusion 243

7.2.1 The cross-linguistic clustering of complementation patterns 243

7.2.2 The cross-linguistic clustering of complementation environments 271

7.2.3 Résumé 278

7.3 Outlook: Organizational differences in complementation systems 280

Envoi 291

Appendix 293

Bibliography 305

Curriculum Vitae and Declaration of Academic Integrity 328 | iii

Abbreviations and notational conventions

For each example sentence from a language other than English, an idiomatic translation is provided alongside a literal (interlinear 'morpheme-by-morpheme") one. The interlinear abbreviations given below largely conform to the Leipzig Glossing Rules, but also contain a number of modifications and particularly additions. I would like to thank two student assistants, Antonia Hülsebeck and Julia

Kossiski, for their help in glossing the examples and synchronizing interlinear abbreviations across the

sample languages. Abbreviations for interlinear morpheme translation

1, 2, 3, 4 1st, 2nd, 3rd,, 4th person

I, II, III, IV, V morphological classes

A transitive agent (agent-like

argument of canonical transitive verb)

ABL ablative

ABS absolutive

ACC accusative

ACT action (nominalizer), active

ADD additive

ADESS adessive

AF A-form (inflectional form in

Urarina)

AFF affirmative

AFR aforementioned

AGT agent(ive)

ALL allative

AN animate

ANT anterior

ANTIP antipassive

AOR aorist

APPAR apparential (evidentiality)

APPL applicative

ART article

ASSOC associative

AUX auxiliary

BARE bare pronoun (Lao)

BEN benefactive

CAU causal

CAUS causative

CERT certainty

CLF classifier

CLIT clitic

CNTR contrast(ive)

COBL oblique complementizing

case (Kayardild)

COM comitative

COMP complementizer

COMPL completive

CONN connector, connective

CONT continuous

CONV converb COP copula

CORE non-nominative core

case/article (Tukang Besi)

CR current relevance

CTP contemporative mood (West

Greenlandic)

DAT dative

DEB debitive

DECL declarative

DEF definite

DEM demonstrative

DEP dependent

DESID desiderative

DETR detransitivizer

DF D-form (inflectional form in

Urarina)

DIR directional, directive,

directed; direct (evidential)

DIST distal, distance

DO direct object

DS different subject (switch-

reference)

DU dual

DUR durative

EF E-form (inflectional form in

Urarina)

EFM Euchee female (Yuchi)

EM Euchee male (Yuchi)

EMPH emphatic

ENC encouragement (Yuchi)

ERG ergative

EXCES excessive

EXP experiential (aspect)

EXT extent of action

EZ Ezafe (Persian)

F feminine

FACT factitive

FOC focus

FUT future

GEN genitive

GL goal

HAB habitual

| iv

HOD hodiernal (past, future)

HON honorific

HRS hearsay (evidentiality)

HUM human

IMAG imaginative

IMP imperative

IMPF imperfect

IMPS impersonal

INAN inanimate

INCH inchoative

INCL inclusive

IND indicative

INDEF indefinite

INESS inessive

INF infinitive

INFL inflectional complex

INFR inferential

INS instrumental

INT intentional (mood, aspect)

INTR intransitive, intransitivizer

INTS intensifier

INVOL involuntary

IO indirect object

IPFV imperfective

IRR irrealis

ITER iterative

L low tone

LG local gender (Motuna)

LGR L-grade (aspectual class)

LINK linker

LOC locative

LOCUT locutor marker (Awa Pit)

LOG logophoric

M masculine

MID middle voice

MSD masdar (gerund)

N neuter

N- non- (e.g. NSG non-singular, NPST

non-past, NF non-feminine)

NEG negative, negation

NGR N-grade (aspectual class)

NOM nominative

NOMFUT nominal future

NMLZ nominalizer

NR near (tense or aspect)

NV neutral version (Georgian)

OBJ object

OBL oblique

OPT optative

P transitive patient (patient-like

argument of canonical transitive verb)

PASS passive

PAUS pausal PCL paucal

PL plural

PNCT punctual

POEL postelative

POL polite

POSS possessive

PREVRB preverb(al) marker

PRF perfect

PRFV perfective

PROG progressive aspect

PROX proximal, proximate

PRS present

PSNV presentative

PST past

PTCP participle

PURP purpose, purposive

Q question/interrogative

QUOT quotative

RECP reciprocal

REDUP reduplication

REFL reflexive

REL relative clause marker

REM remote (past, future)

REP reportative, reported

RES resultative

RL realis

S intransitive subject (single

argument of canonical intransitive verb)

SBJ subject

SBJV subjunctive

SBST substantivizer

SEQ sequential, consecutive

SG singular

SHRT short

SIT sitting position (Yuchi)

SPAC spacer (Barasano)

SS same subject (switch-

reference)

STAT stative

SUB subordinate, subordinator

SUP supine

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