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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS10

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES12

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS14

NOTE ON THE TEXT24

Chapter

1.INTRODUCTION27

Thesis, 27

Subject Matter, 29

Terms of Reference, 29

The European Wars of Religion, 31

Mercenaries and the Art of War, 37

Sources and Methodology, 42

Sources, 42

Premises and Terminology, 47

Aristocracy, 47

Companies and Captains, 51

Thesis Structure, 53

2.CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS:

MODERN AND EARLY-MODERN59

Definitions and Historiography, 59

Introductory, 59

Modern Definitions, 60

Modern Scholars and Early-Modern Soldiers, 67

Summary, 71

Attitudes to Mercenaries in Early-Modern Europe, 72

Renaissance Hostility to Mercenaries, 72

Early-Modern Definitions, 74

Mercenaries and Nationality, 75

Mercenaries and Wages, 78

Mercenaries in Contemporary Context, 81

War as Aristocratic Vocation, 81

Legitimate and Illegitimate Forms of Aristocratic

Military Reward, 86

'Professionalism' as Plebeian, 91

Conclusion, 92

3.CAPTAINS, CONTRACTS AND CAMPAIGNS(i): 1562-7695

General Introduction, 95

Between Two Governments, 96

The Early Years 1562-72, 98

Initial Skirmishes: France and the Netherlands,

1562-1568, 98

Increasing Involvement: the Third War of Religion,

1568-70, 102

1572: Nexus of the European Wars of Religion, 108

Dimensions of English Participation, 109

The Expeditions to Flushing, 114

Protestant Internationalism and the Opstand, 118

Fighting for Survival 1572-76, 120

Aftermath of the Massacre of St Bartholomew,

1572-73, 120

Crisis in Holland and Zeeland, 1572-76, 122

Small Investment, Big Return: the Fifth War of

Religion, 1574-76, 130

4.CAPTAINS, CONTRACTS AND CAMPAIGNS(ii): 1577-85134

The United Netherlands and English Policy, 134

Potential and Predicament: The Revolt Renewed, 137

Third Revolt and Sixth Civil War, 137

The Emergency of 1578, 139

Sustaining the Struggle, 1579-84, 147

Before Anjou (1579-81), 147

After Anjou (1582-84), 150

Summary, 156

1584: Crisis of the Revolt, 156

5.CAPTAINS, CONTRACTS AND CAMPAIGNS(iii): To 1610161

The English Nation at War 1585-94, 161

Royal Intervention and Administrative Confusion,

1585-87, 162

6

The Royal Armies 1588-94, 170

Anglo-Dutch Military Relations, 1585-94: An Over-

view, 174

The 'Nurserie of Soldierie' 1594-1 610, 176

The Return of Mercenary Companies, 1594-1603, 176

Reversion and Revision, 1604-10, 185

The Fall of Sir Francis Vere, 186

Full Integration, 190

Conclusion: Captains and Contracts 1562-1610, 194

6.FINANCES199

Captains, Employers and Their Transactions, 200

Basic Principles, 201

Payment in Practice, 203

Captains and their Companies, 208

Financial Patronage, 211

Alternatives to Pay,

Mercantile Credit, 213

Conclusions, 219

Summary and Implications, 221

7.RECRUITMENT (I): IMPRESSMENT AND ADVERTISEMENT224

Context, 225

Compulsion, 226

Impressment to 1600, 227

Impressment post-i 600, 230

'At the Sound of the Drum'?, 235

The Limitations on Advertisement, 236

Continuity of Home Recruiting, 239

Conclusion, 243

8.RECRUITMENT (ii): AFFINITIES247

Tudor Recruiting and Aristocratic Military Power --

Precedent and Practice, 248

Context, 248

Affinities and Recruiting in the Sixteenth Century, 250 The Nobilitas and Military Service: Summing Up, 258 7

Affinities and Mercenary Recruiting, 260

Protestant Patrons and Their Influence, 261

Military Patronage within Affinities, 268

Mercenaries' Martial Resources, 269

Mercenary Captains as Military Patrons, 274

Mercenaries; Scum or Cream of Society?, 279

Affinities and Recruiting for Jacob's Wars: Conclusion, 284

9. CONCLUSION287

Summary: Key Findings and Arguments, 287

Some Wider Conclusions, 292

Important Questions, 298

Military Issues, 299

Religion and Motivation, 301

Summing Up, 309

Appendix

1.Numbers of Mercenaries (i): Sources and Analysis310

Introductory Remarks, 310

Actual Annual Strengths, 312

2.Numbers of Mercenaries (ii): Tabulated Evidence340

3.Mercenaries and the English Peerage351

4.Structures of Lordship in Early-Modern EngJand354

5.Mercenary Captains (I): General, Field and Administrative

Officers362

General Officers, 362

Governors of Cities, 371

Field Officers, 375

Other Administrative Officers, 401

6.Mercenary Captains (ii): Company Commanders403

7.Companies and Regiments in Foreign Protestant Service

Each Year486

8.Captains Dead on Active Service504

9.Royal Captains with Experience in the Ranks of Mercenary505

Companies

10.British Mercenaries and the English, Dutch and Spanish Armies 512

8

Bibliography519

Primary Material, 519

Unpublished, 519

Published, 533

Collections and Calendars of Official Documents,

Correspondence and Proclamations, 533

Editions of Private Correspondence, Diaries and

Journals, 535

Contemporary or Near-Contemporary Works, 542

Secondary Material, 549

Biographical, Bibliographical and General Works of

Reference, 549

Books and pubflshed theses, 550

Published papers, 566

Unpublished theses and papers, 582

9

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Work on my Ph.D. has been made possible by funding from a number of sources. I am very much obliged to the French Protestant Church of London and the Institute of Historical Research for electing me as the 1996 Huguenot Research Scholar, and to the British Academy for awarding me a two-year Postgraduate Studentship in the Humanities (1 996-98); and I am indebted to the Department of War Studies, King's College London, for a grant from its hardship fund in 1995-96. In addition, I gratefully acknowledge the following bodies for grants specifically for research in foreign archives: the University of London Central Research Fund (two grants); the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's 'Regional Security in a Global Context' Programme at the Department of War Studies King's College London (Travel/Research Grant); the Royal Historical Society (Postgraduate Research Grant); and the School of Humanities, King's College London (Small Research Grant). My parents, John and Mary Trim, and parents-in-law, Larry and Beverly John- son, assisted in looking after my daughter, Genevieve and provided some financial help, while my wife, Wendy Trim, put to one side her own historical research interests and has worked throughout to help support us. Hugh Dunthorne provided copies of his transcription of manuscripts in the Folger Shakespeare Library, and of his photocopy of Edward Raban's Resolutions (taken from the unique copy in the library of the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres). Simon Adams supplied a copy of his transcription of an important document from the Genevan archives. Paul Hammer shared his notes from Audit Office and Exchequer records at the Public Record Office. John Trim helped with finding references and photocopying manuscripts at the Leicestershire Record Office and the William Salt Library, Staffordshire Record Office. I greatly appreciate their generous assistance. Quotations from the Talbot and Devereux Papers are included by permission of the Marquess of Bath, Longleat House, Warminster, Wiltshire; the Cecil Papers are cited by permission of the Marquess of Salisbury: I am 10 grateful to the noble lords for their permission to use their MSS. I am also obligated to the archives and libraries cited in the bibliography: in particular to the notably friendly and helpful staff of the reading rooms at the Algemeen Rijksarchief in Den Haag; the Bibliotheque Mazarine, Bibliotheque Nationale and Bibliothèque de Ia Société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français, all in Paris; and the Bodleian Library, Oxford. And my research was facilitated by the efficiency of Per Lisle and Lynda Baildam at Newbold College Library. Early drafts of some chapters were read and commented on by Simon Adams, Alastair Duke, Harry Leonard and Wendy Trim; additionally, the latter two, together with Alan Bryson, Hugh Dunthorne and David Potter, read and commented on the preliminary draft of the thesis as a whole. I am grateful to each, though responsibility for any errors and interpretations is mine alone. I am further obliged to Alan Bryson, who e-mailed information from standard biographical works at a crucial late stage, expediting the completion of the appendixes, and to Wendy Trim, who helped to cross-check the bibliography with the footnotes and to prepare the maps. 11

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

FigurePage

1.Numbers of English and Welsh Soldiers in Protestant Employ

in France and the Netherlands Each Year, 1562-161028

2.Map of France during the Wars of Religion (1 562-1 598)100

3.Map of the Netherlands, 1568-1609101

4.Map of Holland and Zeeland during the Opstand, 1572-73113

5.Trends in Annual Totals 1562-1610341

6.Average Annual Strength 1562-1610342

7.Comparison of Elizabethan and Jacobean Numbers343

8.Establishment Strengths Per Annum 1575-87345

9.Establishment Strengths 1575-87: Trend346

10.Establishment Strengths Per Annum 1594-1610II

11.Establishment Strengths 1594-1610: Trend,t

12.Minimum Strengths Per Annum, 1569-87348

13.Minimum Strengths 1569-87: Trend'I

14.Minimum Strengths Per Annum, 1594-1608349

15.Minimum Strengths 1594-1 608: TrendI,

16.Trends in Minimum and Maximum Actual, and Establishment

Strengths 1562-87, 1594-1610350

17.Dutch Army Including English and Welsh Mercenaries513

18.Anglo-Welsh Mercenaries as Proportion of Dutch Establish-

ment 1576-1610514

19.Trend in Queen's-Pay Establishment 1585-1602516

20.Spanish Troops Sent to the Netherlands/Ireland/France

Per Year518

Table

1. Types of Relationships Within Affinities and Terms Used in

12 this Thesis to Describe Them49

2.States'-Pay Companies to be Raised in 1586228

3.Percentage of Foreigners in English Companies245

4.Percentage of Nobles in Ranks of Selected Non-English

Companies in Dutch Employ, 1573-77280

5.Percentage of Gentlemen Volunteers in Selected English

Companies in Dutch Employ, 1573282

6.Estimated Actual Numbers of English and Welsh Mercenaries

in Huguenot and Dutch Service Each Year, 1562-1610340

7.Classified Annual Strengths 1562-1610344

8.Peers or Heirs to Peerages Who Served as Mercenaries

With the French and/or Dutch 1562-1 610351

9.Mercenaries in French or Dutch Service Who Were Later

Created Peers352

10.1-1 0.82 Companies in French or Dutch Employ Each Year487

11.Mercenary Captains Dead on Active Service504

12.Dutch Establishment Strengths, 1575-1610512

13.English Establishment Strengths, 1585-1602515

14.Royal Troops Raised for Foreign Service, 1585-1 602517

15.Troop Numbers and Nationalities in the Spanish Army of

Flanders518

13

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAE MDA MDF

Add. MS(S)

AE/PH AHR APC ARA CAan.

CvDorp

Co FAB GRK RAGP RvS SG ARG ARH AJO RKA SvH

ASCL, MSS

BL

Cott. MSS

Harl. MSS

Paris: Archives des Affaires Etrangeres

Mémoires et Documents, Angleterre

Mémoires et Documents, France

Additional Manuscript(s)

Geneva: Archives d'Etat, Pièces Historiques

American Historical Review

Acts of the Privy Council 1542-1628, ed. John Roche Dasent et al, new ser., 46 voLs (London: H. M. Stationery

Office, 1890-1949)

Den Haag: Algemeen Rijksarchief, Eerste AfdeHng

Collectie Aanwinsten

Famillearchieven, Collectie van Dorp

Familiearchieven, Collectie Ortell

Famillearchief Bogaers

Generaliteits Rekenkamer

Regeringsarchieven [...J geünieerde [...] provinciën

Archief van de Raad van State

Archief van de Staten-Generaal

Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte

Den Haag: Algemeen Rijksacchief, Derde Afedling, Rijks- archief in Zuid-Holland

Archief van Johan van Oldenbarnevelt

Archief der Rekenkamer ter Auditie

Archief van de Staten van Holland

Oxford: All Souls College, Codrington Library, Manu- scripts London: British Library, Department of Manuscripts

Cotton Manuscripts

Harley Manuscripts

14

Lans. MSS

Blandy

BMGN BN CCC

MSS Fr.

MSS Nafr.

Bodl., MSS

Rawl. MSS

BSHPF, MSS

BSG, MSS

Camden,

II III iv

Cecil MS(S)

Lansdowne Manuscripts

William Blandy, The Castle. or Picture of Pollicy shewing forth the martiall feates lately done by our English nation. under the conduct of Sir John Norris [...1 in Friesland 1.. .1 (London: 1581) Bijdragen en mededelingen betreffende de geschiedenis van Nederland

Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale de France

Collection Cinq Cents de Colbert

Manuscrits français, Fonds français

MSS francais, Nouvelles acquisitions fcancaises

Oxford: Bodleian Library, Manuscripts

Rawlinson Manuscripts

Paris: Bibliothèque de Ia Société de l'Histoire du Prot- estantisme Francais, Manuscrits

Bibliotheque Sainte-Geneviève, Manuscrits

William Camden. Annales. The True and Royal History of the famous Empresse Elizabeth, Queene of England.

France and Ireland &c.

London, 1625 edn (trans. Abraham Darcie), bk 1

bid, bk 2 (pagination contiguous with bk 1) Ibid, bk 3 (bound with bks 1-2, but new pagination)

2nd pt; London, 1629 edn (trans. Thomas Browne)

Hatfield House, Hertfordshire: Marquess of Salisbury's

Manuscripts, Cecil Papers, Manuscripts

Chamberlain Letters The Letters of John Chamberlain, ed. Norman Egbert McClure, pt 1, American Philosophical Society, Memoirs,

12 (Philadelphia: 1939).

Churthyard's Choice Thomas Churchyard, A generall rehearsall of warres. called Churchyard's choise (London: 1579)

Churchyard, Description

Thomas Churchyard, A lamentable, and pitifull descript- ion, of the wofull warres in Flaunders (London: 1578). Corr.Correpondance, Correspondence, or Correspondentie. CPRCalendar of the Patent Rolls. Preserved in the Public 15 Record Office: Elizabeth I, ed. J. H. Collingridge and Ann Morton, 9 vols. to date. London: H. M. Stationery Office,quotesdbs_dbs42.pdfusesText_42

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