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ENCYCLOPEDIAof

GEOCHEMISTRY

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

Volume Editor

After receiving his B.A. in geology from the University of California, Berkeley, William White earned a Ph.D. in oceanography from theUniversity of Rhode Island in 1977. White did postdoctoral work at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and at the US Geological Survey inDenver between 1977 and 1980. From 1980 to 1985 he was a staff scientist at the Max Planck Institut für Chemie in Mainz, Germany, and then

spent a year as associate professor in the College of Oceanography at Oregon State University. White joined the Cornell faculty in 1986 where hecurrently serves as professor of earth and atmospheric sciences. He spent 7 months of 1995 as a visiting professor at the École Normale Supérieure

de Lyon and the Université de Rennes, served as a visiting professor at the Université de Brest in 2001-2002, and was a Merle Tuve Senior Fellowat Carnegie Institution of Washington in 2002. White is a fellow of the Geochemical Society and the American Geophysical Union. He served asfounding editor of the electronic journalGeochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems(G-cubed) from 1999 to 2005.

Associate Editors

William H. Casey

University of CaliforniaDepartment of Chemistry and Department of Earth and Planetary SciencesDavis, CA, USA

Bernard Marty

Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques (CRPG), CNRSInstitut Universitaire de France, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de GéologieVandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France

Hisayoshi YurimotoHokkaido University

Natural History SciencesSapporo, Japan

Aims of the Series

TheEncyclopedia of Earth Sciences Seriesprovides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each

volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations andreference lists.These books represent one of the world's leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works

published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, andoceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in theEncyclopedia of Earth SciencesSeries.Gotohttp://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the"Earth Sciences Series"online.

About the Series Editor

Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in theEncyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the

Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the internationalJournal of Coastal Researchfor thepast 35 years. He is also the Series Editor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University

Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU) (Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes the International Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning &Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). He has published numerous peer-reviewed technical

research papers and edited or co-edited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified Professional Geological Scientist (Arvada,Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and a Chartered MarineScientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida International

University (Miami), Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (PortEverglades, Florida), and Full Professor at FAU. During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico, Jamaica;Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast

USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societies including the Geological Society of America; Soil Science Society of America;Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of Wetland Specialists. He is a recipient of the International Beach

Advocacy Award (Florida Shore & Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. Chilingar Medal of Honor (Russian Academy ofNatural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium).

Founding Series Editor

Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as

a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WWII intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada,

Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the GoddardInstitute for Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIAof

GEOCHEMISTRY

A Comprehensive Reference Source on the

Chemistry of the Earth

edited by

WILLIAM M. WHITE

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

With Associate Editors

WILLIAM H. CASEY

University of California, Davis, CA, USA

BERNARD MARTY

CNRS Institut Universitaire de France, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France

HISAYOSHI YURIMOTO

Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018930990

ISBN: 978-3-319-39311-7

This publication is available also as:

Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-319-39312-4 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-319-39313-1 Cover illustration: The poly-extreme hydrothermal terraces of Dallol, Afar Triangle, Ethiopia. Hydrothermal chimneys and miniature geysers discharge high temperature (105-108

C), oxygen-free, hyper-acidic

(pH ~ 0), and Fe-rich (26 g/L of Fe) brines, creating a series of colorful terraces and pools. Unlike other hydrothermal

sites where the colors are related to the presence of microorganisms, the color palette of Dallol results from the slow

oxidation of aqueous ferrous species and precipitation of Fe(III)-chlorides/-oxyhydroxides/-sulfates. Photograph was

taken during thefieldtrip of 2017 in the framework of the ERC grant Prometheus. Electra Kotopoulou, Spanish National

Research Council (IACT-CSIC-UGR), Spain.

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from

other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due

acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All rights reserved for the contributions:Acid Deposition; Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals; Atomic Number, Mass

Number, and Isotopes; Ferromanganese Crusts and Nodules: Rocks that Grow; Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors; Oil

Shale; Potassium; Refractory Inclusions in Chondritic Meteorites. #Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is

microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,

computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are

believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a

warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have

been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

Contributors xv

Preface xxxi

Acknowledgments xxxiii

Ab Initio Calculations1

David A. Dixon

Achondrites7

Akira Yamaguchi, Jean-Alix Barrat and

Richard Greenwood

Acid Deposition12

Gregory B. Lawrence

Acid-Base Reactions15

Carl O. Moses

Activation Parameters: Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,

and Volume19

William H. Casey and C. André Ohlin

Activity and Activity Coefficients21

Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander

Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals23

Ricardo Arevalo Jr.

Aluminum27

Mainak Mookherjee

Analytical Techniques29

William M. White

Anthropogenic CO

2 34

Klaus S. Lackner

Antimony37

Jacqueline R. HoustonAqueous Solutions39

Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander

Archeological Geochemistry42

Patrick Degryse and R. Alexander Bentley

Argon53

Mark A. Kendrick

Argon Isotopes56

Philippe Sarda

Arsenic58

Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon

Astatine59

Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon

Atmophile Elements60

Daniele L. Pinti

Atmospheric Evolution62

Colin Goldblatt

Atomic Absorption, Inductively Coupled Plasma

Optical Emission Spectroscopy, and Infrared

Spectroscopy76

Michael A. Rutzke

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes83

Russell S. Harmon

Authigenesis85

Norbert Clauer

Barium91

William M. White

Beryllium93

Jeffrey G. Ryan

Beryllium Isotopes95

Paul R. Bierman and Eric W. Portenga

Biogenic Methane100

Dariusz Strąpoć

Biogeochemistry107

Hilairy Ellen Hartnett

Biological Pump111

Sarah L. C. Giering and Matthew P. Humphreys

Biomarker: Assessment of Thermal Maturity116

Kenneth E. Peters and J. Michael Moldowan

Biomarkers: Coal123

Achim Bechtel and Wilhelm Püttmann

Biomarkers: Petroleum136

Meng He, J. Michael Moldowan and

Kenneth E. Peters

Biopolymers and Macromolecules148

Markus Kleber and Patrick Reardon

Bismuth153

Cristiana L. Ciobanu and Nigel J. Cook

Black Shales and Sapropels155

Kay-Christian Emeis

Boron156

Christophe Lécuyer

Boron Stable Isotopes162

Gavin L. Foster, Christophe Lécuyer and

Horst R. Marschall

Bromine167

Hélène Bureau

Cadmium171

Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon

Caesium172

Gray E. Bebout

Calcium177

Christophe Lécuyer

Calcium Isotopes181

Juraj Farkasˇ

Calorimetry186

Masaki Akaogi

Carbon187

Adrian Jones

Carbon Cycle191

Elizabeth A. Canuel and Amber K. HardisonCarbon Isotopes194

Thomas Wagner, Clayton R. Magill

and Jens O. Herrle

Carbonate Compensation Depth204

Ryan J. Woosley

Carbonate Minerals and the CO

2 -Carbonic Acid

System206

Abraham Lerman and Fred T. Mackenzie

Cerium226

Catherine Chauvel

Chalcophile Elements229

Sarah-Jane Barnes

Chelation233

Corey D. Pilgrim

Chemical Bonds234

Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander

Chemical Weathering237

Jéroˆme Viers and Priscia Oliva

Chlorine241

Mark A. Kendrick

Chlorine Isotopes244

Magali Bonifacie

Chondrites248

Sara Russell

Chondrules251

Rhian Jones

Chromium255

Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon

Chromium Isotopes256

Devon B. Cole, Xiangli Wang, Liping Qin,

Noah J. Planavsky and Christopher T. Reinhard

Clapeyron's Equation262

Masaki Akaogi

Clay Membranes263

Ian C. Bourg

Clay Minerals265

Josh Wimpenny

Coal275

Stephen F. Greb, Cortland F. Eble

and James C. Hower

Cobalt291

Olivier Pourret and Michel-Pierre Faucon

vi CONTENTS

Colloids294

Jean-François Boily

Complexes297

Jay R. Black

Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis300

Yi Ge Zhang

Copper303

Xingcheng Liu and Xiaolin Xiong

Copper Isotopes305

Paul Savage

Cosmic Elemental Abundances310

Herbert Palme

Cosmogenic Nuclides317

Rainer Wieler

Critical Points325

William H. Casey and Peter A. Rock

Critical Zone326

Justin B. Richardson

Crystal Chemistry331

Dana T. Griffen

Crystal Field Theory340

Hans Keppler

Debye-Hückel Equation345

Jay R. Black

Density Functional Theory347

David A. Dixon

Diagenesis353

Isabel P. Montan˜ez and Laura J. Crossey

Diffusion363

Yan Liang

Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM)375

Hilairy Ellen Hartnett

Dolomite and Dolomitization378

Jennifer A. Roberts

Dysprosium381

Scott M. McLennan

Earth's Atmosphere383

Daniele L. Pinti

Earth's Continental Crust392

Roberta L. RudnickEarth's Core418

William F. McDonough

Earth's Oceanic Crust430

Michael Perfit

Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA)439

Stuart Kearns

Electronegativity442

Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander

Elements: Metalloids445

David A. Dixon and Monica Vasiliu

Enthalpy446

Carl O. Moses

Entropy447

Carl O. Moses

Epigenesis453

Jamie J. Wilkinson

Equilibrium455

Equilibrium Constant456

Erbium

460

Scott M. McLennan

Europium462

Matthias Willbold

Evaporites464

John Warren

Experimental Mineralogy and Petrology471

Charles A. Geiger and Tatsuhiko Kawamoto

Ferromanganese Crusts and Nodules: Rocks That

Grow477

Kira Mizell and James R. Hein

Fick's Law483

Isao Sakaguchi

Fission Track Analysis484

Stuart N. Thomson

Fluid Inclusions488

Robert J. Bodnar

Fluid-Rock Interaction492

William E. Glassley, Laura J. Crossey and

Isabel P. Montanez

CONTENTS vii

Fluorine495

Kenneth T. Koga and Estelle F. Rose-Koga

Formation and Evolution of the Earth498

Francis Albarède

Fractional Crystallization and Assimilation513

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