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The Report of the Expert Working Group for
Human Factors in Handwriting Examination
In Memoriam
This report is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Bryan Found, a valued contributor to this project and a friend who is dearly missed. Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach was produced with funding from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Office of Investigative and Forensic Sciences (OIFS) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) SpecialPrograms Office.
Opinions or points of view expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or the U.S. Department of Commerce. Mention of commercial products or services in this report does not imply approval or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that such products or services are necessarily the best available for the purpose. Suggested citation format: Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting Examination. Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2020.ii Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach
The Report of the Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting ExaminationTable of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. viii
1. Members ............................................................................................................................ xii
2. About the Sponsors........................................................................................................... xiii
3. Organization of This Report .............................................................................................. xiii
4. Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter 1: Handwriting Examination Process ......................................................................................... 2
1.1 The Conventional Process of Forensic Handwriting Comparison ...................................... 7
1.2 The Process ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.2.1 Case Acceptance [Steps 1040].......................................................................... 12
1.2.2 Questioned Writing Pre-Analysis [Steps 100230] .............................................. 12
1.2.3 Questioned Writing Analysis [Steps 300420] ..................................................... 14
1.2.4 Known Writing Pre-Analysis [Steps 500660] ..................................................... 16
1.2.5 Known Writing Analysis [Steps 700990] ............................................................ 19
1.2.6 Comparison of Questioned and Known Samples [Steps 10001010]................. 19
1.2.7 Evaluation [Steps 11001340] ............................................................................. 20
1.2.8 Case Review and Report Finalization [Steps 14001700] .................................. 24
1.3 FDE Opinions .................................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 2: Interpretation and Technology ............................................................................................. 30
2.1 Cognitive Bias ................................................................................................................... 30
2.1.1 Contextual Bias in Forensic Handwriting Examinations ...................................... 34
2.1.2 Level 1 Contextual Information ............................................................................ 36
2.1.3 Level 2 Contextual Information ............................................................................ 37
2.1.4 Level 3 Contextual Information ............................................................................ 38
2.1.5 Level 4 Contextual Information ............................................................................ 39
2.1.6 Levels 5 to 7 Contextual Information ................................................................... 39
2.1.7 Contextual Information Management and Task Relevance ................................. 39
2.2 Validity and Reliability of Forensic Handwriting Comparisons .......................................... 44
2.2.1 The Appropriateness of the Underlying Principles ............................................... 45
2.2.2 Reliability and Validity in Handwriting Examination ............................................. 52
2.3 Interpreting Handwriting Evidence .................................................................................... 55
2.3.1 Feature Selection and Interpretation.................................................................... 55
Introduction iii
2.3.2 Handwriting Comparison Approach and Evaluation ............................................ 56
2.4 Research Needs ............................................................................................................... 63
2.5 Automated Systems .......................................................................................................... 65
2.5.1 The Early Years of Automated Systems .............................................................. 67
2.5.2 Automated Systems to Support Handwriting Examinations ................................ 68
2.5.3 The Future of Automated Systems ...................................................................... 71
Appendix 2A: Probability and Statistical Reasoning ............................................................................ 73
Chapter 3: Reporting and Testimony ...................................................................................................... 79
3.1 Value of the Forensic Report ............................................................................................ 79
3.2 The Forensic Report and Human Factors......................................................................... 80
3.3 Opinion Scales .................................................................................................................. 84
3.4 The Forensic Report on Handwriting Examinations ......................................................... 87
3.4.1 Contents of the Forensic Report .......................................................................... 88
3.5 The Testimony of the Forensic Document Examiner ........................................................ 99
3.5.1 Impartial Testimony ............................................................................................ 101
3.5.2 Reporting the Possibility of Error ....................................................................... 105
3.6 ne ................................. 107
3.7 Use of Visual Aids during Testimony .............................................................................. 108
Appendix 3A: Sample Report................................................................................................................. 111
Chapter 4: Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) .............................................................. 119
4.1 Accreditation ................................................................................................................... 119
4.2 The Quality Management System ................................................................................... 124
4.2.1 The Quality Manual ............................................................................................ 124
4.2.2 Examination Methods/Procedures ..................................................................... 126
4.2.3 Review ............................................................................................................... 127
4.2.4 Monitoring of Results and Testimony................................................................. 132
4.2.5 Preventive and Corrective Actions ..................................................................... 133
4.2.6 Personnel and Laboratory Testing ..................................................................... 136
4.2.7 Documentation and Record Keeping ................................................................. 148
4.2.8 Personnel, Accommodation, and Environmental Conditions ............................. 149
Chapter 5: Education, Training, and Certification ............................................................................... 149
5.1 Foundational Education .................................................................................................. 149
5.2 Training ........................................................................................................................... 150
5.2.1 History of Training Standards ............................................................................ 151
iv Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach
The Report of the Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting Examination5.2.2 Training Manuals................................................................................................ 153
5.2.3 Current Training Processes ............................................................................... 154
5.2.4 Cross-training ..................................................................................................... 156
5.2.5 Trainers .............................................................................................................. 157
5.2.6 Future of Training for Forensic Document Examiners ....................................... 157
5.3 Final Competence Assessment and Certification ........................................................... 163
5.4 Ongoing Education and Recertification .......................................................................... 164
5.5 User Education Communication of Expectations with the Legal Community .............. 164
Chapter 6: Management ......................................................................................................................... 166
6.1 ....................................... 166
6.1.1 Additional Considerations for the Sole Practitioner ........................................... 167
6.2 .................................................. 168
6.2.1 Continuing Education ......................................................................................... 168
6.2.2 Assessment of Competency .............................................................................. 169
6.3 Communication ............................................................................................................... 169
6.3.1 Communication with Forensic Document Examiner .......................................... 169
6.3.2 Communication with Customer .......................................................................... 170
6.3.3 Communication with Other Stakeholders .......................................................... 170
6.4 Physical Environment...................................................................................................... 170
6.4.1 Workstation ........................................................................................................ 171
6.4.2 Appropriate Lighting ........................................................................................... 171
6.5 Technical Environment ................................................................................................... 171
6.5.1 Equipment/Tools ................................................................................................ 171
6.5.2 Interfaces and Displays ...................................................................................... 172
6.6 Standardized Procedures ............................................................................................... 172
6.6.1 Manual Design ................................................................................................... 172
6.6.2 Procedure Design .............................................................................................. 172
6.7 Error Causation and Management .................................................................................. 173
6.7.1 Examiner Actions ............................................................................................... 174
6.7.2 Examiner State................................................................................................... 175
6.7.3 Management Issues ........................................................................................... 176
6.7.4 Organizational Influences .................................................................................. 177
6.8 Promoting Positive Error Culture .................................................................................... 178
6.9 ......................................... 179
Introduction v
6.10 Hiring Pattern Evidence Examiners ................................................................................ 179
Chapter 7: Summary of Recommendations ......................................................................................... 180
Glossary ................................................................................................................................................... 185
Bibliography Alphabetical Order ........................................................................................................ 200
vi Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach
The Report of the Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting ExaminationList of Boxes, Figures, and Tables
BoxesBox 1.1: Process map terminology ............................................................................................................... 3
Box 1.2: Factors to consider in evaluating dissimilarities ........................................................................... 20
Box 1.3 ................................... 27
Box 2.1: Glossary of terms relating to bias and its management ............................................................... 34
Box 2.2: Reliability and validity in the context of forensic handwriting examination ................................... 50
Box 2.3: Evidential strength in a handwriting case (Likelihood Ratio paradigm) ........................................ 60
Box 2.4: Bayesian approach and frequentist approach .............................................................................. 61
Box 2A.1: Terms (and their definitions) used in the statistical expression of likelihood within a formal
Bayesian paradigm when evaluating support for one proposition over another .................. 75.............................................................................................................. 77
Box 4.1: Duty to correct ............................................................................................................................. 134
Box 5.1: Example of levels within the Reinforcement Tier in the tiered training process ......................... 161
Figures
Figure 1.1: Handwriting examination process map ..................................................................................... 10
Figure 1.2: Generic check marks considered too simplistic for a meaningful examination (A) and morecomplex handwriting suitable for an examination to proceed (B) ........................................ 13
............................................................. 15 .............................................. 15 Figure 1.5: Handwritten entries that are not comparable even though they contain the same letters,because the allographic form is different ............................................................................. 17
Figure 1.6: Handwritten entries that are comparable because they contain the same allographic form of
letters, i.e., both are written in uppercase hand printing with the same letters and numberspresent.................................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 1.7: Cut and paste manipulation of signatures on non-original documents..................................... 22
Figure 2.1: Taxonomy of seven sources of contextual information in forensic examinations .................... 37
Figure 2.2: Information (ir)relevance as a function of case, discipline, and task ........................................ 41
Figure 3.1: Presentation of conventional conclusions and the likelihood-based scale* ............................. 85
................................................................................................... 158
Introduction vii
Tables
Table 1.1: Handwriting characteristics routinely considered during a handwriting examination ................ 14
Table 1.2: Criteria based on current process map for reaching the different levels of opinion .................. 23
Table 1.3: Summary of SWGDOC Standard Terminology for Expressing Conclusions of ForensicDocument Examiners ........................................................................................................... 26
Table 1.4: Examples of FDE opinions ......................................................................................................... 28
Table 2.1: Overview of general actions to manage contextual information ................................................ 42
Table 4.1: A summary of the key areas covered in the two main sections of a quality manual ............... 125
Table 4.2: Overall grouped scores for the LaTrobe study questioned signature and handwriting trials... 141
Table 4.3: Opinion score profiles for FDEs A to G for genuine, disguised, and simulated questionedsignature types from one La Trobe University RACAP ...................................................... 142
Table 5.1: Information relating to length of training and experience of FDE ............................................ 153
program .............................................................................................................................. 159
............................................................................................................................................ 159
viii Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach
The Report of the Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting ExaminationIntroduction
For some 6,000 years, humans have made an indelible mark on history through the loops, strokes, and other characters that constitute the written form of language handwriting. Whether it is the movement of a stylus inscribing wet clay or the motion of a pen across paper, handwriting is one of the most familiar forms of expression and one of the most idiosyncratic. The study of handwriting is also an important part of forensic science. By analyzing the characteristics of a handwritten note or signaturenot only the slant of the writing and how letters are formed, but more subtle features a trained forensic document examiner (FDE)1 may be able to extract valuable information for determining whether a note or signature is genuine, as well as the likely writer. The results of a forensic document examination can have far-reaching consequences: a life or liberty may hang in the balance. An FDE may be called upon in a court of law to answer or to supply information that would help a judge or jury answer questions involving authenticity and writership. However, there is increased recognition and concern, highlighted by several recent studies cited throughout this document, that the nature of evidence and human factors have the potential to inadvertently influence forensic examinations, including handwriting. The study of human factors examines the interactions between humans and other elements of a system technology, training, decisions, products, procedures, workspaces, and the overall environment with the goal of improving both human and system performance. Inadequate training, extraneous knowledge about the suspects in the case or other matters, poor judgment, limitations of vision, complex technology, and stress are but a few factors that can contribute to errors. Furthermore,poor management, insufficient resources, and substandard working conditions can also prove detrimental
to an examination. Analyzing human factor issues in handwriting examination how they arise and howthey can be prevented or mitigated can inform the development of strategies to reduce the likelihood
and impact of errors. The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Office of Investigative and Forensic Sciences (OIFS) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Programs Office sponsored the work of the Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting Examination to encourage and enhanceefforts to apply human factors research, reduce the risk of error, and improve the practice of forensic
document examination.1 For the purposes of this report, a forensic handwriting examiner will be referred to as an FDE.
Images Courtesy of Fotolia
Introduction ix
The Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting ExaminationThe Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting Examination (hereinafter referred to as the
Working Group) convened in June 2015, the second in a series of expert groups examining humanfactors in forensic science. It follows a successful and widely read report on human factors in latent print
examination.2The Working Group was charged with conducting a scientific assessment of the effects of human factors
on forensic handwriting examination with the goal of recommending strategies and approaches toimprove its practice and reduce the likelihood of errors. A scientific assessment, as defined by the Office
that typicallysynthesizes multiple factual inputs, data, models, assumptions, and/or applies best professional judgment
3The Working Group was charged with:
Examining and analyzing the human factors in current policies, procedures, and practices within the field of forensic handwriting examination. Developing practices based on scientifically sound research to reduce the likelihood of errors in forensic document examination Evaluating various approaches to quantifying measurement uncertainty within forensic document analysis Publishing findings and recommendations that include future research initiatives.The Working Group met eight times over the course of 2-1/2 years and heard presentations from experts
in the areas of human factors; the weight of evidence in law, statistics, and forensic science; decision-
making and formulation of propositions; probabilities and likelihood ratios; and other relevant topics.
Working Group members were selected by NIST and NIJ staff in consultation with the Working Group co-chairs on the basis of their expertise in the forensic sciences, understanding of human factors principles,
background in handwriting examination and forensic document analysis practices and training,understanding of the use of statistics in forensic science, and the use and acceptance of handwriting
testimony in the courts. The Working Group consisted of an international group of forensic scienceexperts in handwriting examination (working as sole practitioners or in larger forensic laboratories), legal
scholars, academics in forensic science, statisticians, cognitive scientists, and representatives of professional organizations.Each chapter of this report was developed by a subcommittee and presented to the entire Working Group
for review. The draft report was developed through a consensus process that allowed each Working Group member to comment on and influence all the recommendations and text. The draft report was edited by a committee formed from a subset of the Working Group members and reviewed by a panel ofindependent experts not associated with the Working Group. The editorial committee then resolved all the
comments from the independent experts and presented the final draft of the report to the Working Group
members for review and final consensus. The group, despite having differing viewpoints and diverse2 Expert Working Group on Human Factors in Latent Print Analysis, 2012.
3 Office of Management and Budget. 2004. Final Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review. 15 December 2004.
p. 1.x Forensic Handwriting Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach
The Report of the Expert Working Group for Human Factors in Handwriting Examination backgrounds, reached substantial agreement on many foundational issues, not limited to the formal recommendations. Some topics discussed represent future directions and trends that may not be fully embraced by the entire group; particular chapters indicate these differences.The Working Group focused exclusively on the analysis and comparison of handwriting, including cursive
and hand-printed text, numerals, and signatures. The group did not address other aspects of questioned
document examinations such as the analysis and comparison of ink and paper, typewritten text, and preprocessing techniques. The Working Group also did not consider graphology (the analysis of ), which is considered a pseudoscience. In conducting its examination of human factors, the Working Group examined trends likely to have a major impact on forensic document examination. The Working Group addressed the need for national training standards for FDEs and made recommendations for standardizing the content of handwritinganalysis reports and communicating report information to clients and the courts. The Working Group also
had robust discussions regarding the potential use and practicality of probabilistic interpretation(likelihood ratios) for use in the expression of handwriting opinions, as this method is employed in several
countries globally.A probabilistic interpretation of results or a determination that the evidence is inconclusive requires clear
and careful explanations in both written reports and testimony; however, no consensus exists for how to
define and express probabilities nor is there a single standard procedure for communicating such information. Although this approach is more widely used outside the United States, the Working Group felt a discussion was warranted to assess whether this approach was appropriate and practical in the current setting as related to human factors considerations. In surveying the human factors associated with forensic document examination, the Working Group acknowledged the shrinking and aging pool of FDEs. A recent survey of the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners revealed that members who are active FDEs have a median age of 60.That compares with a median age of 42 to 44 for those in similar professional, technical and scientific
occupations, according to data compiled by the U.S. Department of Labor.44 U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2017. Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population
Survey. Last modified February 8, 2017. https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat18b.htm.Introduction xi
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