Learning to use space: A study into the SL2 acquisition process of PDF

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thesis itself argument marking in South American languages

Contact-induced change in Dolgan (LOT Dissertation Series 336)

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FIRST MEANING THEN FORM

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Learning to use space: A study into the SL2 acquisition process of

Jun 21 2020 publication

I dedicate this thesis to the memory of my advisor Teun Hoekstra

If writing a dissertation involved sitting alone without being in touch with many show that sentence-final adverbs may provide evidence in favor of.

Event conceptualization in language production of early bilinguals

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Learning to use space:

A study into the SL2 acquisition process

of adult learners of Sign Language of the

Netherlands

Published by

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ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. ir. K.I.J. Maex ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 19 juni 2020, te 13:00 uur door Eva Mirjam Visker geboren te Rotterdam

Promotiecommissie:

Promotores:

prof. dr. E.M. van den Bogaerde, Universiteit van Amsterdam prof. dr. H.C.J. de Graaff, Universiteit Utrecht

Copromotor:

dr. R. Pfau, Universiteit van Amsterdam

Overige leden:

prof. dr. F. Kuiken, Universiteit van Amsterdam prof. dr. L. Leeson, Trinity College Dublin prof. dr. C.G. Rathmann, Humboldt University of Berlin prof. dr. J.C. Schaeffer, Universiteit van Amsterdam dr. B. Sümer, Universiteit van Amsterdam

Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen

Het hier beschreven promotieonderzoek is mogelijk gemaakt met financiële steun van Hogeschool Utrecht UAS (HU) door middel van een promotievoucher. i

Table of contents ............................................................................................. i

List of Tables and Figures ............................................................................... xi

List of abbreviations and sign language acronyms ....................................... xix

Transcription conventions .......................................................................... xxiii

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... xxvii

1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Motivation for studying the SL2 acquisition of use of space ................ 2

1.2 Thesis outline ........................................................................................ 3

1.3 Supplementary materials ...................................................................... 5

2. Theoretical background .............................................................................. 9

2.1 Intersecting research fields ................................................................... 9

2.2 The Dutch deaf community and Nederlandse Gebarentaal ............... 11

2.2.1 The deaf community and the signing community ....................... 11

2.2.2 NGT versus Sign-supported Dutch ............................................... 15

2.2.3 Historical background of NGT ...................................................... 15

2.2.4 The current legal status of NGT ................................................... 18

2.2.5 Loss of vitality and language endangerment ............................... 19

2.3 Learning and teaching a sign language as a second language ............ 20

2.3.1 Terminology ................................................................................. 21

2.3.2 The field of sign language pedagogy ............................................ 24

2.3.2.1 Initial scholarly work: pursuing recognition ......................... 24

2.3.2.2 Expansion of the research area ............................................ 25

2.3.2.3 Establishing a research field ................................................. 25

2.3.3 Issues that arise in the context of SL2-pedagogy ........................ 27

2.3.3.1 Sociolinguistic and social issues ............................................ 27

2.3.3.2 Linguistic issues ..................................................................... 28

2.3.3.3 Gestural resources ................................................................ 30

2.3.3.4 Lack of a written form ........................................................... 32

2.3.4 Sign language teaching in the Netherlands ................................. 32

2.4 The signing space: functions and spatial devices ............................... 33

2.4.1 Background on sign language phonology and lexicon ................. 34

2.4.1.1 Sign language phonology ...................................................... 34

2.4.1.2 Sign language lexicon ............................................................ 36

2.4.2 Types of representations ............................................................. 41

2.4.2.1 Spatial representations (motivated space) ........................... 42

2.4.2.2 Abstract representations ...................................................... 44

2.4.2.3 Real space ............................................................................. 46

2.4.3 Morphosyntactic spatial devices ................................................. 46

2.4.3.1 Overview of spatial devices .................................................. 46

2.4.3.2 Relation between spatial devices and representation type . 48

2.4.4 Rotation of the signing space....................................................... 48

2.4.5 Constructed action ....................................................................... 50

2.4.6 The relationship between gesture and sign ................................ 53

2.4.7 Previous research regarding acquisition and emergence of spatial

devices .................................................................................................. 60

2.4.7.1 Acquisition and emergence of pointing signs ....................... 61

2.4.7.2 Acquisition and emergence of agreement verbs .................. 62

2.4.7.3 Acquisition and emergence of Entity classifier predicates ... 65

2.4.7.4 Acquisition and emergence of signs marked for location .... 68

iii

2.5 This study ............................................................................................ 69

2.5.1 Aims and objectives ..................................................................... 69

2.5.2 Research questions ...................................................................... 70

3. Study 1: A longitudinal study into the acquisition of spatial devices in two

SL2-learners of NGT ...................................................................................... 73

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 73

3.2 Theoretical background: language pedagogy ..................................... 74

3.3 Theoretical background: using space ................................................. 75

3.3.1 Pointing ........................................................................................ 77

3.3.2 Spatial modification of verbs ....................................................... 79

3.3.3 Agreement auxiliaries .................................................................. 82

3.3.4 Classifier predicates ..................................................................... 83

3.3.5 Spatial modification in the nominal domain................................ 84

3.3.6 Perspective shift ........................................................................... 85

3.4 Method ............................................................................................... 87

3.4.1 Participants .................................................................................. 87

3.4.2 Procedures ................................................................................... 87

3.4.3 Coding .......................................................................................... 89

3.4 Results ................................................................................................. 90

3.4.1 Quantitative analysis.................................................................... 90

3.4.1.1 Verbs ..................................................................................... 92

3.4.1.2 Pointing signs ........................................................................ 95

3.4.2 Qualitative analysis ...................................................................... 98

3.4.2.1 Pointing signs ........................................................................ 98

3.4.2.2 Verbs ..................................................................................... 99

3.4.2.3 Signs marked for location ................................................... 102

3.5 Discussion and conclusion ................................................................ 103

4. Study 2: A longitudinal study into the acquisition of classifier predicates in

fourteen SL2-learners of NGT ..................................................................... 107

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 107

4.2 Theoretical background .................................................................... 108

4.2.1 Classifiers and classifier constructions....................................... 108

4.2.1.1 Whole Entity classifiers and Hande classifiers .................... 110

4.2.1.2 Two-handed classifier constructions .................................. 111

4.2.1.3 Figure and Ground .............................................................. 114

4.2.1.4 Variability in choice of classifier.......................................... 115

4.2.1.5 Classifier-like constructions in gestural behavior ............... 115

4.2.2 Alternative devices .................................................................... 116

4.2.3 Acquisition of Whole Entity classifiers ....................................... 118

4.2.4 Research questions .................................................................... 119

4.3 Methodology..................................................................................... 120

4.3.1 Participants ................................................................................ 120

4.3.2 Materials .................................................................................... 122

4.3.3 Procedure ................................................................................... 123

4.3.3.1 Procedure SL2-participants ................................................. 123

4.3.3.2 Procedure benchmark (L1-participants and teachers) ....... 124

4.3.4 Transcription and coding ........................................................... 124

4.4 Results ............................................................................................... 128

4.4.1 Benchmark-data ......................................................................... 128

4.4.2 SL2-data: Developmental stages................................................ 130

4.4.2.1 Distribution of strategies over time .................................... 130

4.4.2.2 First appearance of classifier predicates ............................ 131

4.4.3 SL2-data: Characteristics of the learner-output ........................ 133

4.4.3.1 Orientation of the hand ...................................................... 134

4.4.3.2 Handshape .......................................................................... 137

4.4.3.3 Movement .......................................................................... 138

4.4.3.4 Use of lexical expressions and other alternative devices ... 138

4.4.3.5 Planning scenes ................................................................... 141

4.4.3.6 Simultaneity ........................................................................ 142

4.4.3.7 Stacked referents ................................................................ 142

4.5 Discussion ......................................................................................... 144

4.5.1 Findings in relation to other studies into SL2 acquisition of

classifier predicates ............................................................................ 144

4.5.2 Findings in relation to L1 acquisition ......................................... 145

4.5.3 Findings in relation to literature on gestures ............................ 145

4.5.4 Novel findings ............................................................................ 146

4.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 148

5. Study 3: A longitudinal study into the acquisition of agreement verbs in

fourteen SL2-learners of NGT ..................................................................... 149

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 149

5.2 On the nature of spatial agreement in sign languages ..................... 150

5.2.1 Verb classes ................................................................................ 150

5.2.2 Localization ................................................................................ 153

5.2.3 Optionality of agreement .......................................................... 154

5.2.5 L1 acquisition of verb agreement in sign languages .................. 156

5.3 Methodology..................................................................................... 156

5.3.1 Participants ................................................................................ 157

5.3.2 Elicitation materials ................................................................... 158

5.3.3 Procedure ................................................................................... 159

5.3.4 Transcription and coding ........................................................... 160

5.4 Results ............................................................................................... 162

5.4.1 Analysis benchmark-data ........................................................... 162

5.4.2 Analysis SL2-learners ................................................................. 164

5.4.2.1 Group performance ............................................................ 164

5.4.2.1.1 Items that evoked character assignment in the

benchmark-group ....................................................................... 165

5.4.2.1.2 Items that evoked modified verbs in the benchmark-

group ........................................................................................... 166

5.4.2.1.3 Use of alternative strategies ........................................ 167

5.4.2.2 Individual patterns and strategies ...................................... 168

5.4.2.2.1 Verb types .................................................................... 169

5.4.2.2.2 Omissions ..................................................................... 170

5.4.2.2.3 Overgeneralization....................................................... 173

5.5 Discussion ......................................................................................... 175

5.5.1 Impact of L1 ............................................................................... 175

5.5.2 Comparison to L1 acquisition of spatial agreement .................. 176

5.5.3 On the special status of first person .......................................... 177

5.5.4 Limitations ................................................................................. 178

5.5.5 Implications for teaching practice ............................................. 179

5.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 180

6. Study 4: A study into the effects of two Focus on Form interventions on

the acquisition of agreement verb modification ........................................ 183

6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 183

6.2 Theoretical background .................................................................... 184

6.2.1 Form-focused instruction........................................................... 184

vii

6.2.2 Verb agreement in sign languages ............................................. 189

6.2.3 Purpose of this study ................................................................. 193

6.3. Method ............................................................................................ 195

6.3.1 Instructional setting ................................................................... 195

6.3.2 Participants ................................................................................ 195

6.3.3 Instrument ................................................................................. 198

6.3.3.1 Instructional materials ........................................................ 198

6.3.3.2 Test materials...................................................................... 200

6.3.4 Procedure ................................................................................... 202

6.3.4.1 Instructional and test procedures....................................... 203

6.3.4.2 Coding ................................................................................. 205

6.3.4.3 Analyses .............................................................................. 207

6.4 Results ............................................................................................... 208

6.4.1 Descriptive statistics .................................................................. 208

6.4.1.1 Pre-test scores .................................................................... 208

6.4.1.2 Familiar items...................................................................... 209

6.4.1.3 Untrained verbs and untrained forms of the paradigm ..... 212

6.4.2 Between-group comparison: Kruskal-Wallis test and pairwise

comparisons ........................................................................................ 213

comparisons ........................................................................................ 215

6.4.4 Accuracy ..................................................................................... 215

6.4.5 Declarative knowledge .............................................................. 216

6.5 Discussion ......................................................................................... 217

6.5.1 Interpretation of the results ...................................................... 217

6.5.2 Choices regarding coding and analysis ...................................... 218

6.5.3 Limitations ................................................................................. 219

6.5.4 Implications for teaching practice ............................................. 220

viii

6.6. Conclusions ...................................................................................... 220

7. General results, discussion, and conclusion ........................................... 223

7.1 Summary of findings regarding the acquisition of spatial devices ... 224

7.1.1 Pointing signs ............................................................................. 232

7.1.2 Verbs .......................................................................................... 233

7.1.2.1 Agreement verbs ................................................................ 233

7.1.2.2 Entity classifier predicates .................................................. 234

7.1.2.3 Spatial verbs other than classifier predicates ..................... 238

7.1.3 Signs marked for location .......................................................... 238

7.1.4 General observations regarding use of space............................ 238

7.2 Summary of findings regarding the effectiveness of pedagogical

interventions ........................................................................................... 242

7.3 Methodological considerations ........................................................ 243

7.3.1 Selection of participants ............................................................ 244

7.3.1.1 Learners .............................................................................. 244

7.3.1.2 Benchmark: L1-signers ........................................................ 244

7.3.1.3 L1-consultants ..................................................................... 245

7.3.1.4 The anonymity issue ........................................................... 246

7.3.2 Tasks ........................................................................................... 246

7.3.3 Test circumstances ..................................................................... 247

7.3.4 Coding procedures and data analysis ........................................ 248

7.3.5 Choice of topic ........................................................................... 249

7.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 249

7.4.1 Re-statement of the aims and major conclusions ..................... 250

7.4.2 Practical implications ................................................................. 251

7.4.3 Theoretical implications ............................................................. 253

7.4.4 Future research .......................................................................... 254

References .................................................................................................. 257

Author contributions .................................................................................. 287

Summary ..................................................................................................... 289

Samenvatting in het Nederlands (summary in Dutch) ............................... 297 Samenvatting in NGT (summary in NGT) .................................................... 307

Curriculum vitae .......................................................................................... 309

Appendices ................................................................................................. 311

Appendices to Chapter 2 ........................................................................ 312 Appendices to Chapter 3 ........................................................................ 313 Appendices to Chapter 4 ........................................................................ 319 Appendices to Chapter 5 ........................................................................ 328 Appendices to Chapter 6 ........................................................................ 338 xi

List of Tables and Figures

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Overview of unimodal and bimodal language learning settings Table 2.2 Similarities between (manual) gestures and sign language constructions Table 3.1 Key findings of study into use of space [study 1] Table 4.1 Meaning components of the two-handed classifier construction in Figure 4.3 Table 4.2 Overview of relevant features of classifier constructions Table 4.3 Background information SL2-participants [study 2] Table 4.4 Background information L1-signers [study 2] Table 4.5 Background information teachers [study 2] Table 4.6 Overview of codes to categorize responses [study 2] Table 4.7 Overview of codes to categorize substitution or underspecification errors [study 2] Table 4.8 First appearance of classifier predicates denoting different classes of entities in the sessions, per participant [study 2] Table 4.9 Onset of classifiers referencing moving/static objects in

SL2-responses [study 2]

Table 5.1 Background information SL2-participants [study 3] Table 5.2 Background information L1-signers [study 3] Table 5.3 Background information teachers [study 3] Table 5.4 Overview of target verbs per elicitation strategy Table 6.1 Group characteristics intervention study [study 4] Table 6.2 Overview of FFI-techniques in the three conditions [study 4] Table 6.3 Means, Medians and 95% Confidence intervals for each condition for each test [study 4] Table 7.1 Overview of findings regarding the acquisition of spatial devices

Table A.3B.1 Overview interviews Anna [study 1].

Table A.3B.2 Overview interviews Charlotte [study 1] Table A.3B.3 Overview interviews L1-participants [study 1] xii Table A.4C.1 Overview of prompts study 2, aimed to elicit two-handed classifier constructions Table A.5A.1 Overview of prompts study 3, aimed to elicit agreement verbs Table A.6A.1 Overview of instructional tasks study 4 Table A.6B.1 Overview of verb forms in instructional materials [study 4] Table A.6C.1 Overview of prompts aimed at eliciting agreement verbs in intervention study [study 4]

List of Figures

Figure 1.1abc Screenshots of supplementary materials visualizing the data Figure 1.2 QR-code referring to supplementary materials Figure 2.1a Schematic representation of the deaf community Figure 2.1b Schematic representation of the signing community Figure 2.2 Example of a representational gesture depicting the movement of a rollercoaster-cart, in which the hand represents the object Figure 2.3 NGT signs BROTHER and ALSO distinguished by the handshape parameter Figure 2.4 NGT sign TEACHER, example of an asymmetrical two- handed signquotesdbs_dbs29.pdfusesText_35

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