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i

LOANWORD ALLOCAT

ION in KINYARWANDA

by

KAYIGEMA Lwaboshi Jacques

STUDENT NUMBER: 3487-533-6

submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

in the subject

AFRICAN LANGUAGES

at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: POF D E MUTASA CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF P A MULAUDZI JUNE 2010

ii

LOANWORD ALLOCAT

ION in KINYARWANDA

by

KAYIGEMA Lwaboshi Jacques

STUDENT NUMBER: 3487-533-6

submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

in the subject

AFRICAN LANGUAGES

at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: POF D E MUTASA CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF P A MULAUDZI JUNE 2010

iii

DECLARATION

I declare that

Loanword Allocation in Kinyarwanda is my own work and that all the sources that I have u sed or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. Sign ature: ..........................................

Date: June 2010

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My highest regard and gratitude are addressed to the Almighty God who has sustained my life and given me good health throughout my MA research programme. To my beloved wife, Nyirahabimana Athalie, and my dearest children, without whom I could not have achieved this work, I dedicate this long and time consuming work. May my supervisor, Professor Dave Mutasa, and my co-supervisor, Professor PA Mulaudzi, who advised me in various ways during the writing of my dissertation , find the warmest and everlasting thanks. Last but not least, may UNISA, which funded my MA studies, accept my sincere gratitude from the bottom of my heart for the financial assistance and books from

UNISA library it has provided me.

v

ABSTRACT

Kinyarwanda, like many other languages in contact, has adapted foreign words to meet the needs of its daily life vocabulary a nd activity. In addition to the lexical need filling, Kinyarwanda borrowed foreign words not only out of need for foreign words but also for prestige. This thesis is based on two hypotheses: Kinyarwanda has borrowed foreign words out of need in various areas; loanwords have been allocated to Kinyarwanda noun class system. This work has discussed and analysed how French and English loanwords have been allocated to key areas of influence and the nominal class system of

Kinyarwanda.

The data were collected

from various sources, including publications, conversation, newspapers, Bible literature, school text books, commercial posters, hoardings. The study has analysed loanwords from French/English deceptive cognates in a bilingual context. This is a challen ging task for other researchers who will have to deal with the complexity of deceptive cognate loanwords. vi Abbreviations and Symbols

DL : Donor Language

DL1 : Donor Language 1

DL2 : Donor Language 2

L1 : Language 1

L2 : Language 2

TL1 : Target Language 1 TL2 : Target Language 2

RL1 : Recipient Language 1

RL2 : Recipeint Language 2

CC : Consonant Consonant sequence CVC : Consonant Vowel Consonant sequence

VCV : Vowel Consonant Vowel sequence

Cl : Nominal Class

DRC : Democratic Republic of Congo

D61 : Code for Kinyarwanda (by Malcolm Guthrie)

J61 : Code for Kinyarwanda (by the Group of Tervuren, Belgium) JD61 : Combined Classification (Guthrie and Tervuren) - : used to separate morphemes

ĺ : becomes, is realized as

: or (used alternately) : nothing, zero vs : versus vii LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1

Loanword Occurrence .......................................................................... 65

Table 3.1

Nominal Classes and Concord Prefixes ............................................... 69

Table 3.2

Allocation of loanwords to noun classes ............................................... 89

Table 4.1

Frequently used doublets ................................................................... 157 viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration ................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iv

Abstract ....................................................................................................................... v

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Sociolinguistic Background ............................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................ 8

1.3 Aim of study ...................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Research Question ........................................................................................... 9

1.5 Scope of Study ............................................................................................... 10

1.6 Research methods .......................................................................................... 10

1.6.1 Quantitative method ........................................................................... 10

1.6.2 Qualitative method ............................................................................. 11

1.7 Literature Review ............................................................................................ 12

1.8 Theoretical framework .................................................................................... 21

1.8.1 The associativeness theory ................................................................ 21

1.8.2 The fostering theory ........................................................................... 24

1.8.3 The sifting theory ................................................................................ 25

1.8.4 The allocation theory .......................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 2

ALLOCATION OF LOANWORDS TO KEY AREAS ................................................ 33

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 33

2.2 Narrative survey .............................................................................................. 34

2.2.1 Criteria for allocating loanwords to noun classes ............................... 35

2.3 Areas of influence ........................................................................................... 39

2.3.1 Agriculture and livestock .................................................................... 43

2.3.2 Building .............................................................................................. 45

2.3.3 Calendar and telling the time .............................................................. 46

2.3.4 Clothing .............................................................................................. 48

2.3.5 Commerce and counting .................................................................... 49

ix 2.3.6 Education ........................................................................................... 50

2.3.7 Employment and professions ............................................................. 52

2.3.7 Foodstuff and cooking ........................................................................ 53

2.3.8 Health ................................................................................................. 54

2.3.9 Household .......................................................................................... 55

2.3.9 Military and police .............................................................................. 56

2.3.10 Music .................................................................................................. 57

2.3.11 Politics and administration ................................................................. 57

2.3.12 Religion .............................................................................................. 59

2.3.13 Sports and games .............................................................................. 60

2.3.14 Technology ......................................................................................... 61

2.3.15 Toponyms and anthroponyms ............................................................ 62

2.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 66

CHAPTER 3

ALLOCATION OF LOANWORDS TO THE NOUN CLASS ..................................... 67

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 67

3.2 Some Aspects of Nominal Morphology in Kinyarwanda ................................. 67

3.2.1 The Noun ........................................................................................... 68

3.2.2 The Augment ...................................................................................... 70

3.2.2.1 Kinds of augment: .............................................................................. 71

3.2.3 Nominal derivation

............................................................................. 79

3.2.4 Morphology versus syntax ................................................................. 84

3.3 Peculiarities of Loanword Allocation to the Noun Class .................................. 86

3.3.1 Assignment of Loanwords to Nominal Classes .................................. 86

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