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THELIBRARY

OF

THEUNIVERSITY

OFCALIFORNIA

LOSANGELES

COURSEIN

GENERALLINGUISTICS

COURSEIN

GENERALLINGUISTICS

FERDINANDDESAUSSURE

EditedbyCHARLESBALLYandALBERTSECHEHAYE

Incollaborationwith

ALBERTREIDLINGER

TranslatedfromtheFrenchbyWADEBASKIN

PHILOSOPHICALLIBRARY

NewYork

COPYRIGHT,1959,BY

THEPHILOSOPHICALLIBRARY,INC.

15EAST40thstreet,newYORKCITY

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

viCONTENTS

APPENDIX

PRINCIPLESOFPHONOLOGY

ChapterPage

I.PhonologicalSpecies

1.DefinitionofthePhoneme38

Articulation44

11.PhonemesintheSpokenChain

2.ImplosionandExplosion51

plosionsintheChain54

4.SyllabicBoundaryandVocalicPeak....57

6.LengthofImplosionandExplosion60

aboutTranscription60

Editor'sNote62

PARTONE

GENERALPRINCIPLES

I.NatureoftheLinguisticSignr"^

1.Sign,Signified,Signifier165j

11.ImmutabilityandMutabilityoftheSign^ -

1.Immutability\71

2.Mutability[JUj

III.StaticandEvolutionaryLinguistics

1.InnerDualityofAllSciencesConcernedwith

Values79

CONTENTSvii

ChapterPage

byComparisons87

MethodsandPrinciples90

6.SynchronicLawandDiachronicLaw....

'91^

7.IsThereaPanchronicViewpoint?"95

Diachrony96/

9.Conclusions98

PARTTWO

SYNCHRONICLINGUISTICS

I.Generalities101

11.TheConcreteEntitiesofLanguage

1.DefinitionofEntityandUnit102

2.MethodofDelimitation104

4.Conclusion106

III.Identities,Realities,Values107

IV.LinguisticValue

Soundrill

V.SyntagmaticandAssociativeRelations

1.Definitions122

2.SyntagmaticRelations124

3.AssociativeRelations125

VI.MechanismofLanguage

1.SyntagmaticSolidarities127

2.SimultaneousFunctioningoftheTwoTypesof

Groupings1^8,

viiiCONTENTS

ChapterPage

VII.GrammarandItsSubdivisions

1.Definitions:TraditionalDivisions134

2.RationalDivisions136

VIII.RoleofAbstractEntitiesinGrammar137

PARTTHREE

DIACHRONICLINGUISTICS

I.Generalities140

II.PhoneticChanges

1.TheirAbsoluteRegularity143

2.ConditionedPhoneticChanges144

3.PointsonMethod145

4.CausesofPhoneticChanges147

1.BreakingoftheGrammaticalBond

:^^J

3.ThereareNoPhoneticDoublets155

4.Alternation157

5.LawsofAlternation158

6.AlternationandGrammaticalBond160

IV.Analogy

1.DefinitionandExamples161

2.AnalogicalPhenomenaAreNotChanges...162

V.AnalogyandEvolution

inInterpretation169

VI.FolkEtymology173

VII.Agglutination

1.Definition176

2.AgglutinationandAnalogy177

CONTENTSix

ChapterPage

AppendicestoPartsThreeandFour

1.SubjectiveandObjectiveAnalysis173

3.Etymology189

PARTFOUR

GEOGRAPHICALLINGUISTICS

II.ComplicationsofGeographicalDiversity

1.CoexistenceofSeveralLanguagesattheSame

Point193

2.LiteraryLanguageandLocalIdiom....195

III.CausesofGeographicalDiversity

1.Time,theBasicCause197

3.DialectsHaveNoNaturalBoundaries...201

4.LanguagesHaveNoNaturalBoundaries...203

IV.SpreadofLinguisticWaves

1.IntercourseandProvincialism205

2.TheTwoForcesReducedtoOne207

PARTFIVE

CONCERNINGRETROSPECTIVELINGUISTICS

III.Reconstructions

1.TheirNatureandAim218

Prehistory

1.LanguageandRace222

2.EthnicUnity223

XCONTENTS

ChapterPage

3.LinguisticPaleontology224

Index233

TRANSLATOR'S

INTRODUCTION

beelaborated. xuTRANSLATOR'SINTRODUCTION valuethroughtheirrelationshiptothewhole. inandforitself.

Ialoneamresponsible.

WadeBaskin

PREFACETOTHEFIRSTEDITION

Althoughhetaughtthreecoursesingeneralhnguistics - in1906-

1907,1908-1909,and1910-1911 - hisscheduleforcedhimtode-

nothing - oralmostnothing - thatresembledhisstudents'note- materialofthethreecourses. lastlectures - andthesemarkjustasbrilliantastepinhiscareer xivPREFACETOFIRSTEDITION forthethird - themostimportant - byMme.AlbertSechehaye sible;therepetitions - inevitableinfreeoralpresentation - over- andwhichone? - wastodeprivethereaderoftherichandvaried standsoutonlyinitstotality.

PREFACETOFIRSTEDITIONxv

apparent,hadtobesurmised. publicandtoallfriendsoflinguistics. foundeverywhereinhiswork - andwhichformthewoofofthis fabricwhichisassolidasitisvaried - hetriedtopenetrate;only encompass. xviPREFACETOFIRSTEDITION upononewhosememoryisdeartous.

PREFACETOTHESECONDEDITION

PREFACETOTHETHIRDEDITION

thesameasthepreceding.Ch.B.Alb.S.

INTRODUCTION

ChapterI

AGLANCEATTHEHISTORYOFLINGUISTICS

object. limited. 1

2COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

littleexceptGreekandLatinantiquity. WhetherBoppcouldhavecreatedhisscience - soquicklyat least - withoutthepriordiscoveryofSanskritisdoubtful.With tivestate - andthisstepfacilitatesexplanation - thenweconclude

AGLANCEATTHEHISTORYOFLINGUISTICS3

preservedareremarkablyhelpfulinresearch - andfatedecreed

Aufrecht,etc.

Indo-Europeanlinguistics.

tegiencecandevelopamethod.

4COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

tojustifytheseabsurdities. reconstructingthefacts.

AGLANCEATTHEHISTORYOFLINGUISTICS5

Germaniclanguages.Romancestudies,begunbyDiez - hisGram- matikderromanischenSprachendatesfrom1836-38 - werein-

COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

ChapterII

SUBJECTMATTERANDSCOPEOFLINGUISTICS;ITS

RELATIONSWITHOTHERSCIENCES

intimeorspace.

Thescopeoflinguisticsshouldbe

family; c)todelimitanddefineitself.

THEOBJECTOFLINGUISTICS7

ofthelinguisticsign. andmutualservicesthattheyrender. workwithtexts - historians,philologists,etc.Stillmoreobviousis specialistswouldbeunthinkable - everyoneisconcernedwithitin onewayoranother.But - andthisisaparadoxicalconsequenceof theinterestthatisfixedonhnguistics - thereisnootherfieldin condemnthemandtodispelthemasbesthecan.

ChapterIII

THEOBJECTOFLINGUISTICS

1.DefinitionofLanguage

merelytopointupthedifficulty.

8COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

valuesfromtheother.Forexample acousticalimpression(seepp.38ff.).

Butthatisstillnotthecompletepicture.

notconceiveofonewithouttheother.Besides studyingthelinguisticphenomenoninitsearlieststages - ifwe

THEOBJECTOFLINGUISTICS9

Eitherprocedureopensthedoortoseveralsciences - psychology, anthropology,normativegrammar,philology,etc. - whichare satisfiesthemind. ous;straddlingseveralareassimultaneously - physical,physio- logical,andpsychological - itbelongsbothtotheindividualand wecannotdiscoveritsunity. lendsitselftonootherclassification.

10COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

instinct.

Thatobjectioniseasilyrefuted.

speech. correspondingtodistinctideas.

THEOBJECTOFLINGUISTICS11

asabove. vanceafinalargument:thefacultyofarticulatingwords - ^whether itisnaturalornot - isexercisedonlywiththehelpoftheinstru-

2.PlaceofLanguageintheFactsofSpeech

B,areconversingwitheachother

»•-n^,j^jjir-'*

12COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

newactwillfollow - fromhisbraintoA's - exactlythesamecourse

Ishalldiagramasfollows

AuditionPhonatlon

"C< c=concept s=zsound-Image

PhonationAudition

everythingelse

THEOBJECTOFLINGUISTICS13

ativecenterispassive; receptive(s - >c). pp.122ff.)- somesortofaveragewillbesetup:allwillreproduce - notexactly ofcourse,butapproximately - thesamesignsunitedwiththe sameconcepts. notparticipateequallyinit. wedonotunderstandthem. speaking[parole].

14COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

collectivity. whichweshalltakeuplater(pp.122ff.). - Speaking,onthecontrary,isanindividualact.Itiswilfuland thingsisabadprocedure. signsthathehears.

THEOBJECTOFLINGUISTICS15

bothpartsofthesignarepsychological.

collectiveapproval - andwhichaddedtogetherconstitutelanguage - arerealitiesthathavetheirseatinthebrain.Besides,linguistic

3.PlaceofLanguageinHumanFacts:Semiology

phenomena,whereasspeechcannot.

16COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

specialnatureoflanguage. mostimportantofallthesesystems. ofanthropologicalfacts. ology. thingelse,fromotherviewpoints.

LINGUISTICSOFLANGUAGEANDOFSPEAKING17

thesign,whichissocial. traitsthatattachlanguagetotheothersocialinstitutions - those thataremoreorlessvoluntary - areemphasized;asaresult,the ignored,/I^orTFedistinguishingcharacteristicofthesign - butthe"^) onethatisleastapparentatfirstsight - isthatinsomewayit explainingthembyitslaws.

ChapterIV

LINGUISTICSOFLANGUAGEANDLINGUISTICS

OFSPEAKING

18COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

meritsofspeech - thosethatconstitutespeaking - freelysubordi- calculatetheireffects. theirrelationtolanguage. Thestudyofspeechisthentwofold:itsbasicpart - ^havingasits individual - isexclusivelypsychological;itssecondarypart - which ingphonation - ispsychophysical.

LINGUISTICSOFLANGUAGEANDOFSPEAKING19

distinctthings. existenceisexpressedbytheformula:

1+1+1+1...=1(collectivepattern)

binations. particularacts,asintheformula (1+r+1"+1'"...) separately.

20COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

soleobjectislanguage. domains.

ChapterV

INTERNALANDEXTERNALELEMENTS

OFLANGUAGE

thatisoutsideitsorganismorsystem - inaword,ofeverything manyimportantthings - theveryonesthatwethinkofwhenwe beginthestudyofspeech. hand,islargelyresponsibleforthenation.

INTERNALANDEXTERNALELEMENTSOFLANGUAGE21

scientificterminology,etc.). thespokenlanguage. organismofanidiom. alwaysdevelopingalongsidelocaldialects,

GermanentitledReallexicon.[Tr.]

22COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

languages - e.g.ZendandOldSlavic - eventheidentityofthe

GRAPHICREPRESENTATIONOFLANGUAGE23

ChapterVI

GRAPHICREPRESENTATIONOFLANGUAGE

1.NeedforStudyingtheSubject

versalinthembyobservingandcomparingthem. availabletoothersonlythroughwriting. overtheSpokenForm

24COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

viewinghimdirectly. independentofwriting. pronunciationwasaccuratelytransmitted.

GRAPHICREPRESENTATIONOFLANGUAGE25

spellingreform! graspthantheonlytruebond,thebondofsound. reversed. portance.

3.SystemsofWriting

Thereareonlytwosystemsofwriting:

26COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

ofwritingisChinese. ontheirreducibleelementsusedinspeaking. isolatedsounds. differentChinesedialects. alphabet.'

SAUSSUREIPA

GRAPHICREPRESENTATIONOFLANGUAGE27

Whenfirstdevisedaphoneticalphabet - unlessborrowedand alreadymarkedbyinconsistencies - givesafairlyrationalrepre- mustbeexamined.

PronunciationWrittenForms

EleventhCentury1rei,leirei,lei

ThirteenthCentury....2roi,loiroi,loi

FourteenthCentury....3roe,loeroi,loi

NineteenthCentury....4rwa,Iwaroi,loi

z

28COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

arestilleveiller'awaken,'mouiller'soak.' standforhushingI,etc. spellingwordsaccordingtotheiretymology. formwithLatindubitare.[Tr.]

GRAPHICREPRESENTATIONOFLANGUAGE29

5.ResultsoftheDiscrepancy

tors,gforgorz,etc.^ theeye. ness,'souffrir'suffer,'etc.).

30COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

phoneticchange? werethenorm. •.GRAPHICREPRESENTATIONOFLANGUAGE31 writing. oftheword,itsetymology. ofwriting.

32COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

pronounced - trulyanorthographicmonstrosity. vation:theyareteratologicalcases.^

ChapterVII

PHONOLOGY^'

1.Definition

ingabeginningswimmerofhislifebelt. nouncingthetinoften.[Tr.] [Tr.]

PHONOLOGY33

hasfreeditfromthewrittenword. Forphoneticsfirstdesignated - andshouldcontinuetodesignate ticulatorymechanismneverchanges. basicpartofthescienceoflanguage;phonology - thisbears repeating - isonlyanauxiliarydisciplineandbelongsexclusivelyto throughwhichthecolorswereobtained.

2.PhonologicalWriting

graphicsystemshavebeenproposed.

34COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

diacriticalmarks;and - tosaynothingofthedistressingappear- anceofapageofphonologicalwriting - attemptstogainprecision notverydesirableoutsidescience. guages,itsuseshouldnotbegeneralized.

3.ValidityofEvidenceFurnishedbyWriting

PHONOLOGY35

upitsphonologicalsystem? headings. portion.

36COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

mingled. belle'beautiful'(frombella),etc.

PHONOLOGY37

rouetmattre'spinningwheel.'" sent - imperfectly - thesesounds.Manygrammariansstillhold nologicalsystemofanidiom.

APPENDIX

PrinciplesofPhonology

ChapterI

PHONOLOGICALSPECIES

LDefinitionofthePhoneme

phonology. 38

PHONOLOGICALSPECIES39

correspondstoahomogeneousbeat:

BAPBAPOS

ks.Aone-to-oneratiobetweensoundsandgraphs - thenecessary andsufficientbasisforagoodphonologicalsystemofwriting - was realizedalmostcompletelybytheGreeks.^

BRBRS.

appeared.Finally - andthisisamoresubtlepoint - inearlyGreekandLatin doul)leslaststwobeats - beatsthatarenothomogeneous,asweshallsee (cf.pp.51ff.).[S.]

40COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

unitwithafootineachchain. abstract. sameorgansasproducersofsound.

1910.[Ed.]

PHONOLOGICALSPECIES41

2.TheVocalApparatusandItsFunctioning^

y(/?designat-

42COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

closeddoor. functioningoftheoralcavity. almostinvariablequality. aproducerofsound. modifythelaryngealsound. resonance.

PHONOLOGICALSPECIES43

a)expiration

6)oralarticulation;

thefirsttwo: c)vibrationofthelarynx d)nasalresonance. alaryngealsoundispresent( - -)orabsent([]),andwhethernasal thebasicspeciesofphonationalacts.

IIIIIIIV

aExpiration

6OralArticulation

c[] d[]

Expiration

OralArticulation

Expiration

OralArticulation

Expiration

OralArticulation

44COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

varietiesoforalarticulation. placedagainsttheupperalveolarridge. nemesaremarkedbyconcomitantfeatures - laryngealsoundand nasalresonance - whichdifferentiatebytheirabsenceaswellas bytheirpresence.

PHONOLOGICALSPECIES45

A.ZeroAperture:Occlusives

gutturals(A;,g,n). palate. phonemes

LABIALS

46COURSEINGENERALLINGUISTICS

B.Aperture1:FricativesorSpirants

theexpulsionofair(Latinfricdre)

LABIO-DENTALS

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