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Citation: Hassan Zadeh, Jawad (2021) Afghanistan"s legal culture from1750 to the twenty-first century. [Thesis] (Unpublished)
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emailAFGHANISTAN LEGAL CULTURE FROM 1750 TO
THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Jawad Hassan Zadeh
A dissertation in satisfaction of the requirement for the degree ofDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Birkbeck, University of London
School of Law
31 January 2021
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ABSTRACT
This thesis analyses Afghan legal culture from 1750 to the present date. In implementing this task, historical legal developments are discussed in light of available records such as the Law Gazettes and recorded cases by the law courts as well as the analyses produced in the form of books, research papers and objective reports by national and international sources. For the technical aspects of Afghan legal history and legal traditions (legal culture), the thesis aims to provide in-depth descriptions as to how legal issues in Afghanistan have developed over a period of nearly three centuries. In this thesis, the legal affairs, their strengths, weaknesses and deficiencies will be discussed in light of the given situations. They will be discussed in relation to the internal and external aspects of Afghan legal system in order to produce an informative research which shows whether in Afghanistan a culture of legality has been established. Through the completion of this thesis, the writer aims to provide insights as well as suggestions in relation to the issues discussed and analysed. The writer is conscious that on a topic like this, despite all the efforts he has made, there is, given the state of the question, simply no way of excluding any possibility of a gap or a lacuna.Page 4 of 531
DECLARATION
I, Jawad Hassan Zadeh, certify that this thesis has been composed by me. It is my own work and it has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. It is my independent work and I have cited all the information that has been used from the work of others.Jawad Hassan Zadeh
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my very deep appreciation to those without whom this thesis could not have been completed. First, I would like to thank Dr Arne Strand and Dr Stephen Connelly for their comments and report to improve the thesis. I acknowledge the dedication of my supervisor, Dr Anton Schütz, and am very grateful for his patient guidance, encouragements and the advice he has provided throughout my time as a student. I have been extremely lucky es to my questions were always very clear and useful. I am indebted to my supervisor for his views, insights and timely comments which have helped me immensely. Anton has given me all the support which has made my journey into academic life smooth and a pleasant experience. I certainly will use his advice not only for the completion of this thesis, but also in my daily life. I would like to express my thanks to Dr Marinos Diamantides, Dr Nathan Moore and Dr Piyel Haldar as well as Sam Tewksbury and his administrative colleagues for their assistance during my study at the Birkbeck University ofLondon.
I also thank all those who assisted me with filling in my research questionnaire and provided invaluable information in several interviews. There are many I want to thank, some of whom decided not to be named. I express my special thanks to Behzad Hakkak, Ichawar Dass, Jack Abraham, Mohammad Nazif Shahrani and Sara Aharon. I thank Dr Hasan Hafidh, PhD Candidate Mohammad Reza Isaqzadeh and Zia Afif for reading chapters of my thesis, who generously provided comments on drafts, although all faultsPage 6 of 531
or errors lie with the author. I extend my gratitude to Christian Bleuer, Dr Amin Tarzi, Dr Danny Singh, Dr Mohammad Nazif Shahrani and Dr Thomas Barfield for sending me their own academic articles and theses as well as the works of some of other researchers which have been quite useful for my research. I also thank Dr Antonio Giustozzi who gave me a doctoral thesis written on Afghanistan. I express my gratitude to John Hougham, Janet Ferguson and Sarah-Jane Pretty for proofreading my work. There are a number of organisations I would like to thank for their help and support. These organisations based in Afghanistan are the AIHRC, UMAMA and the Afghan Civil Society ForumOrganisation.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Fereshteh Taheri and my two daughters, Maysa and Morsal who generously gave me all the support, love and caring I needed throughout this research and in other times.Page 7 of 531
TERMS OF REFERENCE
In this thesis, the terms laws and Islamic laws are used which means knowledgeable and is used for persons of knowledge such as a mullah, clergy, astrologer, a nuclear scientist, an engineer, etc. In the context ilm,Sunnah, (traditions of Prophet
Mohammad), and is the binary opposite of
to people with a knowledge of Islam. It also happens that within the circles of the Islamic religious authority. Throughout this thesis, I have used legal and non-legal terminologies in Arabic, Dari-Farsi, Latin and Pashto languages. All foreign terms for which there are no standard spellings in the English language will be italicised. These terms will also show pronunciation signs for easier reading. All dates are written according to the common Western calendar. In this thesis, the languages of Farsi and Persian are one and the same. Different writers use these language names interchangeably. In Afghanistan, Farsi/Persian has been re-named as Dari. In the area of Islamic laws and in the field of humanities, different spellings of the same terms are frequently used. Often spelling differences arise when1 Hallaq, A History of Islamic Legal Theories, 15.
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transliterations are given by speakers of different languages. For instance, Arabic. I have followed the general orthographic standards of the Dari-Farsi language, as this language is the lingua franca for all the citizens ofAfghanistan.
become controversial for members of the different ethnic groups of definitions. Firstly, it is the tribal name for the Pashtnjns. Nile Green writes official state bureaucratic term denoting common national identity, it had for centuries denoted a narrower ethnic identity, equivalent to what we would all citizens of Afghanistan, who come from dozens of different ethnic groups.2 Green, From Conversion to the Taliban, xiv.
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. 3
DECLARATION ...................................................................................................... 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... 5
TERMS OF REFERENCE ....................................................................................... 7
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. 17
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ 17
MAPS OF AFGHANISTAN .................................................................................. 18
THESIS OVERVIEW ............................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 23
1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 23
1.1 Problem Justification ......................................................................... 23
1.2 The Aims of the Research ................................................................. 24
1.3 Significance of the Study .................................................................. 26
1.4 Situating the Thesis ........................................................................... 26
1.5 The Research Question and Sub-Questions ...................................... 27
1.6 Hypothesis ......................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 292 Introduction ....................................................................................... 29
2.1 Quantitative Methodology ................................................................ 29
2.2 Qualitative Methodology .................................................................. 30
2.3 Mixed Methods Research .................................................................. 30
2.4 Data Collection Procedure ................................................................ 31
2.5 The Rationale for using Mixed Methods Research ........................... 32
2.6 Ethnography ...................................................................................... 33
2.7 Historical Methods ............................................................................ 33
2.8 Case study and Process Tracing ........................................................ 34
2.9 Theoretical Perspectives ..................................................................... 34
2.10 Political Economy Analysis ............................................................. 35
2.11 Intersectionality ................................................................................. 35
2.12 Data Collection.................................................................................. 36
2.13 Qualitative Data Collection ............................................................... 40
2.14 The Research Questionnaire ............................................................. 41
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2.15 The Questionnaire Respondents ....................................................... 43
2.16 Referring to Qualitative Information ................................................ 47
2.17 The Interviews ................................................................................... 47
2.18 Ethical Issues ..................................................................................... 48
2.19 Data Validation ................................................................................. 48
2.20 Insider/Outsider and Reflexivity ....................................................... 49
2.21 The Research Dilemma ..................................................................... 50
2.22 Limitations to the Research ............................................................... 51
2.23 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 52
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 533 Introduction ....................................................................................... 53
3.1 Definitions of Legal Culture ............................................................. 54
3.2 Legal Literature ................................................................................. 56
3.3 Islamic Legal Developments in Afghanistan .................................... 60
3.4 Constitutions ..................................................................................... 61
3.5 Primary Justice .................................................................................. 62
3.6 Informal Justice ................................................................................. 63
3.7 Legal Pluralism ................................................................................. 64
3.8 Legal Transplants .............................................................................. 67
3.9 Law in Action .................................................................................... 68
3.10 Education........................................................................................... 69
3.11 Society and Government ................................................................... 71
3.12 War, Insurgency and Para-State Institutions ..................................... 73
3.13 Ethnographic Research on Tribal Life .............................................. 75
3.14 Literature on non-Islamic Religious Monitories ............................... 75
3.15 Women and Gender Injustices .......................................................... 77
3.16 Honour and Patriarchy Affecting Women ........................................ 79
3.17 Diversity in the Choice of Literature ................................................ 79
3.18 Political Economy Analysis theory ................................................... 80
3.19 Intersectionality theory...................................................................... 83
3.20 Case study and Process Tracing ........................................................ 85
3.21 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 86
CHAPTER 4: AN INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC LAW ................................... 87Page 11 of 531
4 Introduction ........................................................................................... 87
....................................................................... 874.2 The Islamic Legal Authority .............................................................. 89
4.3 The Sunna ........................................................................................... 91
4.4 Laws Concerning the Non-Muslims ................................................... 92
............................................................ 93 ................................................................. 954.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER 5: RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN
AFGHANISTAN .................................................................................................... 99
5 Introduction ........................................................................................... 99
5.1 Oral Culture in Afghanistan ............................................................. 100
5.2 The Ancient Religions of Afghanistan ............................................. 102
Zoroastrianism .............................................................................................. 102
Buddhism ...................................................................................................... 104
The Cult of Zhun ........................................................................................... 106
Hinduism ....................................................................................................... 107
Shamanism .................................................................................................... 116
5.3 The Abrahamic Faiths ..................................................................... 120
Judaism ......................................................................................................... 120
Christianity .................................................................................................... 126
.................................................................................................... 127
Sufism ........................................................................................................... 130
5.4 Religious Persecutions ..................................................................... 132
5.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 134
CHAPTER 6: PROCEDURAL AND SUBSTANTIVE JUSTICE BASED ON6 Introduction ......................................................................................... 135
6.1 Theoretical Description of Tribalism ............................................... 136
6.3 Customary Laws ............................................................................... 145
6.4 Procedural and Substantive Justice .................................................. 145
Blood Feuds .................................................................................................. 145
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Marriage Disputes ......................................................................................... 147
Theft .............................................................................................................. 148
Trial by Ordeal .............................................................................................. 148
Moral Transgression ..................................................................................... 149
Marriage as Compensation............................................................................ 150
Land Disputes ............................................................................................... 151
Inheritance ..................................................................................................... 152
Levirate Marriage .......................................................................................... 154
The Bride-price ............................................................................................. 155
Tribal Punishment ......................................................................................... 156
6.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 158
CHAPTER 7: LEGAL PLURALISM IN AFGHANISTAN ................................ 1597 Introduction ........................................................................................ 159
nj ..................................................... 1617.2 The Jirga ........................................................................................... 163
7.7 Government of Afghanistan and Customary Law ............................ 180
7.8 International Non-Governmental Organisation (INGOs) ................. 182
7.9 Justice Dispensed by the Insurgents ................................................. 184
7.10 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 187
CHAPTER 8: LEGAL TRANSPLANTS IN AFGHANISTAN .......................... 1898 Introduction ......................................................................................... 189
8.1 Operationalisation of the Variables .................................................. 192
Dependent Variables ..................................................................................... 193
Independent Variable Measurement ............................................................. 1948.2 Colonial Influences on Legal Transplants ........................................ 195
8.3 Turkish Legal Transplants in Afghanistan ....................................... 197
8.4 Indian Legal Transplants in Afghanistan ......................................... 198
8.5 Egyptian Legal Transplants in Afghanistan ..................................... 201
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8.6 Ahmad Shah Durrani 1747-1772...................................................... 204
8.7 Amir Dost Muhammed Khan 1826-1863 ......................................... 205
8.8 Amir Abdur Rahman Khan 1880-1901 ............................................ 207
8.9 Amir Habibullah Khan 1901-1919 ................................................... 209
8.10 Amanullah Khan 1919-1929 .......................................................... 213
8.11 Habibullah Kalakani (r. 1929) and Nadir Khan (r. 1929-1933) ..... 217
8.12 Zahir Shah 1933-1973 .................................................................... 217
8.13 Mohammad Daud Khan 1973-1978 ............................................... 221
8.14 The socialist governments, 1978-1992 ........................................... 225
8.15 Hamid Karzai 2002-2014 ............................................................... 229
8.16 Ashraf Ghani Ahmadzai 2014 - to date .......................................... 238
8.17 The Taxonomy of Legal Transplants ............................................. 243
8.18 Testing the Hypothesis ................................................................... 245
8.19 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 249
CHAPTER 9: THE CONSTITUTIONS OF AFGHANISTAN: 1923-2020 ........ 2519 Introduction ......................................................................................... 251
9.1 Demands for a Constitution in Afghanistan ..................................... 253
9.2 CONSTITUTION 1923 .................................................................... 254
9.3 CONSTITUTION 1931 .................................................................... 256
9.4 CONSTITUTION 1964 .................................................................... 259
9.5 CONSTITUTION 1977 .................................................................... 261
9.6 CONSTITUTION 1980 .................................................................... 264
9.7 CONSTITUTION 1987 .................................................................... 266
9.8 CONSTITUTION 1990 .................................................................... 267
9.9 CONSTITUTION 2004 .................................................................... 269
9.10 Future Constitutional Directions .................................................... 275
9.11 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 277
CHAPTER 10: CORRUPTION IN AFGHANISTAN AND ITS IMPACT ON THERULE OF LAW .................................................................................................... 279
10 Introduction ....................................................................................... 279
10.1 Definitions of Corruption ............................................................... 282
10.2 International Political Actors .......................................................... 285
10.3 Categories of Corruption in Afghanistan ....................................... 289
One: Acceptable Corruption ......................................................................... 290
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Two: Blaming Others for Corruption ............................................................ 291Three: Bribery ............................................................................................... 293
Four: Divisions in Society Empower Corruption.......................................... 295Five: Education is Corrupt ............................................................................ 296
Six: Emulating Others for Corruption ........................................................... 299Seven: Extortion ............................................................................................ 300
Eight: Abuse of Power .................................................................................. 301
Nine: Halal Corruption.................................................................................. 302
Ten: Dishonesty as Corruption ..................................................................... 303
Eleven: Legal Gaps for Corruption ............................................................... 303
Twelve: Low Income .................................................................................... 304
Thirteen: Nepotism ....................................................................................... 305
Fourteen: Predation in Politics ...................................................................... 307
Fifteen: Tax Evasion and Discriminatory Taxation ...................................... 30810.4 Major Corruption Cases 2001-2020 ............................................... 309
10.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 311
INSTITUTIONS ................................................................................................... 313
11 Introduction ....................................................................................... 313
11.1 The Genesis of Legal Developments in the Realm of the State ..... 314
11.2 The Legal Interregnum Stages ....................................................... 319
Legal Interregnum Stage II ........................................................................... 325
11.3 The Legal Institutions of Afghanistan ............................................ 326
The Judiciary ................................................................................................. 326
The Ministry of Justice ................................................................................. 327
The Supreme Court ....................................................................................... 329
The ICOIC .................................................................................................... 331
..................................................................... 332 The Anti-Corruption Justice Centre (ACJC)................................................. 335Page 15 of 531
The Parliament .............................................................................................. 338
The Police Force ........................................................................................... 339
11.4 Afghanistan Independent Bar Association (AIBA) ........................ 342
11.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 344
CHAPTER 12: JUDICIAL QUALITY IN AFGHANISTAN .............................. 34612 Introduction ....................................................................................... 346
12.1 Legal Education .............................................................................. 346
12.2 The Recruitment of the Judges ....................................................... 348
12.3 The Expansion of Judgeship ........................................................... 350
12.4 Judgements ..................................................................................... 352
12.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 356
CHAPTER 13: THE STATUS OF WOMEN OF AFGHANISTAN IN SOCIETYAND IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM ......................................................................... 358
13 Introduction ....................................................................................... 358
............................................................ 35913.2 Recognition of Women by the State ............................................... 359
13.3 Marriage Registration ..................................................................... 364
............................ 36513.5 A Century of Family Law .............................................................. 367
.................................................. 37113.7 International Instruments for the Support of Women .................... 373
13.8 The CEDAW Convention .............................................................. 374
13.9 Challenges for the Implementation of the CEDAW....................... 381
.................................................................. 38113.11 Conclusion .................................................................................... 386
CHAPTER 14: CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................... 389
ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................ 397
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..................................................................................... 398
RELIGIOUS TERMS ........................................................................................... 403
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 408
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