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Music Criticism and tdhe Exposition

Internationale Universellle de 1900 *

Lesley Wright

What people ... do in such a fair is to stroll, to be a flâneur, and what they stroll between are signs of different cultures. Therefore, whether they are locals or visitors from outside the city hosting the fair, they are acting as tourists, gazing upon the signs of different cultures. People can do in an afternoon what otherwise takes a lifetime: gaze upon and collect signs of dozens of different cultures-the built environment, cultural artefacts, meals and live, ethnidc entertainment.1 From 14 April to 12 November 1900 Paris hosted the largest international exposition ever seen up to that time. Just under fifty-one million visitors came to 'tour the world" via the exhibits of more than forty nations. The French government wanted the visitors to take home an

appreciation of the host nation-respect for her culture (the âme française) and for her political

might (manifested in the colonial empire)-as well as an understanding of artistic and technological progress of the previous century. Tourists, both French and foreign, would have the opportunity to compare the exhibits of participating nations and in this way establish relative rankings.2 And so a splendid retrospective art exhibit and an extensive series of concerts surveyed the French tradition in the arts while the impressive pavilions of the French colonies in Southeast Asia, Africa and North Africa attested to the nation"s wealth and power as well as her genius for administration and education. 3

In the theatres attached to these pavilions

indigenous peoples pdrovided live ethnic edntertainment for the flâneurs.4 The Exposition was also a grand amusement park with shopping, restaurants and popular diversions. Commercial ventures featured jugglers and contortionists, carnival-type rides, and

* Parts of this papder were delivered in an earlier versdion at the internationadl colloquium, 'From Mudsical

Exoticism to World Music" in July 2000 at City University of London. I would like to thank William Malm,

J. Scott Miller, James Brandon, Sandra Davis and Yoko Kurokawa for sharing their expertise and materials

on Japanese music.1 John Urry, The Tourist Gaze (London: Sage, 1990) 153. 2

For parallel examples in the same period, see Robert W. Rydell, All the World"s a Fair: Visions of Empire at

American International Exlpositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: U of Chicadgo Press, 1984).

3 Richard D. Mandell, Paris 1900: The Great World"s Fair (Toronto: U of Toronto Press, 1967) 66, 120.

4

For information on disdplaying people at wdorld"s fairs, see Burtdon Benedict, 'Rituals odf Representation:

Ethnic Stereotypes and Colonized Peoples at World"s Fairs," Fair Representations: World"s Fairs and the

Modern World, ed. Robert W. Rydell and Nancy E. Gwinn (Amsterdam: VU UP, 1994) 28-61. Benedict

proposes three modes of display: people and their artefacts as curiosities, people as artisans with their

products, and people ads trophies or booty.

20Context 22 (Spring 2001)

cafe-concerts. Exotic attractions like panoramas, ethnic restaurants, snake charmers and belly dancers were sometimes due to private enterprise instead of the state. Music critic Pierre Lalo complained that he was constantly besieged by music of all sorts. Even when he was trying to have a cup of tea, a potpourri from Faust or Cavalleria rusticana assaulted him or a fake gypsy played variations on the Rakocsky March. 'Overall," he sniffed, 'the Exposition of 1900 does not offer its visitors as many little musical treats as its predecessors, where the various cafes of Tripoli, Morocco, Laos and elsewhere let those who so desired it sample many a subtle rhythm and many a bizarre tune." 5 The tourist"s experience at the Exposition of 1900 would not have been complete without gathering up unfamilidar sights and sounds dand tastes, essentiald to creating a sense of hadving left home. John Urry summarized the characteristics of the tourist"s gaze as follows: 'Places are chosen to be gazed upon because there is an anticipation, especially through daydreaming and fantasy of intense pleasures, either on a different scale or involving different senses from those customarily encdountered." 6 The 'Porte Binet" at the Place de la Concorde marked the beginning of this world tour, evoking daydreams of far-away places with its minarets that mimicked the architecture in the

French North African colonies.

7 At the same entrance the importance of the feminine to the success of this enterprise was also symbolized by a statue mounted on a dome above the arches of the gate. There, instead of Liberty or Peace, stood La Parisienne, in her couturier- designed dress. Even if they were less prominently displayed than in 1889, exotic music, dancers and musicians fed the fantasy hinted at by the design of the gate. Though the flâneurs had tired of belly dancers, they still appreciated the slender grace of Javanese dancers; but in 1900 they were particularly drawn to Japan"s geishas, the 'jolies bibelots-femmes" 8 who gave life to the characters of Pierre Loti"s novels and to the Japanese prints that were so widely collected in the later nineteenth century. Most notable among them was Mme Sada Yakko, an accomplished actress/dancer/musician, who entranced both Tout-Paris and other tourists as she danced and died sedveral times a day on dthe stage of Loie Fuldler"s art nouveau theaterd. The organizers in 1895 had designated education the most important category for organizing the tourism at the Exposition (it was lauded as the source of all 'progress," a buzzword of the Third Republic); next in importance came the arts, not commerce, to display the nation"s accomplishments. 9 Their prominence is a logical extension of trends evident in earlier Parisian exhibitions (1867, 1878, 1889)d. 5

Pierre Lalo, 'La Musique," Le Temps 21 August 1900: 1. 'Tout compte fait, l"Exposition de 1900 ne propose

pas à ses visiteurs autant de petites récréations musicales que ses devancières, où divers cafés de Tripoli,

du Maroc, de l"Annam et d"ailleurs permettaient à qui le voulait de goûter maints rythmes subtils et

maintes mélodies bizardres." 6

Urry, The Tourist Gaze 3.

7

For illustrations of the Porte Binet, both with and without the statue that crowned its central dome, see

Eugen Weber, France: Fin de siècle (Cambridge, Mass.: Bedlknap Press of Harvard UP, 1986). 8 'Les Femmes à l"Expositidon," L"Illustration 13 October 1900: 233. 9

Exposition universelle internationale de 1900 à Paris, Actes Organiques (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1895)

77, 79. See also Jann Pasler, 'Paris: Conflicting Notions of Progress," in The Late Romantic Era, ed. Jim

Samson (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991) 389-416. Pasler is preparing an important contextual

study of this period entitled Useful Music, or Why Music Mattered in Paris, 1870-1913 for the University of

California Press.

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22Context 22 (Spring 2001)

chosen for the official programs and made gradually more caustic comments as the summer progressed. Some lobbied for their own favorite composers, inexplicably left out or represented by the wrong piece or the wrong genre. In October Lalo dismissed the official programs as having no overall logic at all; each work was like 'a flower in a pot" with 'no order of any sort, as if there were no historic periods, no evolution, and no schools in our music; [the commission considered] each work as an isolated phenomenon." 17

Adolphe Jullien suggested maliciously

that the amount of time allotted to each composer stood in inverse proportion to his personal merit. 18 The consensus was that politics within the musical world and the wish to placate all factions had damaged the effort to present the nation"s musical image to the Exposition tourists. All the same music critics who wrote on the official French concerts gave space to most or all of the visiting foreign groups. By 'foreign" the critics were referring to the other Europeans who sent orchestras or choruses. The government had officially invited applications by foreign concert societies in the same decree that set up the official French concert series, 19 and asked that they concentrate on their own national music. 20

Critics agreed that these nations, largely

from northern Europe, had only immature national traditions, and generally advised them to stop imitating Mendelssohn or Wagner and to turn to their folk traditions so that they could better connect with their national 'soul." 21

Donning French garb was not tolerated either; for

example, Norwegian Johan Halvorsen"s Oriental Suite was judged 'triste," even if it competently borrowed harmony, rhythm and orchestration that evoked memories of Massenet"s Roi de Lahore ('L"Orient en musique norvégienne...non ça ne va pas."). 22

Only Austrians and Germans

were accorded an elevated status as bearers of a concert tradition equal to the French-not surprising given the veneration for Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner in late nineteenth- century France. Still, before the Vienna Philharmonic under Gustav Mahler gave its three concerts that June, an article in Le Figaro seems to have tweaked French pride and added an edge to later critical commentary. This piece, designed to arouse interest in the ticket-buying public, claimed that the 'marvelous" Vienna Philharmonic was probably the 'most perfect" orchestra currently in existence. It then credited Mahler"s 'extraordinary" conducting with piously preserving a German performance tradition in his tempi and interpretation of Mozart, Beethoven and

Wagner.

23
More than one Parisian critic found the Philharmonic"s woodwinds harsh, heavy and inferior to the French sound in general and to the winds of the Concerts du Conservatoire 17

Pierre Lalo, 'La Musique," Le Temps 9 October 1900: 1. '[S]ans ordre d"aucune sorte, comme s"il n"était en

notre musique ni périodes historiques, ni évolutions, ni écoles, à considérer chaque oeuvre comme un

phénomène isolé: une fldeur dans un pot." 18 Adolphe Jullien, 'Revude musicale," Journal des débats 2 September 1900: 1. 19 'Exposition de 1900," Le Monde musical 12.13 (15 February 1900): 44-46.d 20 Unique among the concerts of Western music was the balalaika orchestra that charmed the public and critics with melancholy Russian songs as well as a repertory that included Schumann, Rubinstein,

Tchaikovsky and Bizet. The orchestra was just exotic enough to be praised for its 'national" character, but

not so distant from the European frame of musical reference that the music critics could ignore it as mere

'clanging" or 'yowling." This positive response to the traditional Russian instruments might be linked to

the counter-discourse of the d"Indy forces, which stressed tradition rather than Republican progress. See

Fulcher, French Cultural Politics 35-45 and Hugues Imbert, 'L"Orchestre Grand-russien (Balalaïkistes)," Le

Guide musical 46.24/25 (24 June/1 July 1900): 5d09. 21
On Mendelssohn and Wagner see Pierre Lalo, 'La Musique," dLe Temps 14 August 1900: 1. 22

X, 'Choses et Autres,"

La Vie parisienne 11 August 1900: 455.

23
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24Context 22 (Spring 2001)

Most who devoted space to exotic music wrote for fellow flâneurs who wanted the pleasure of gazing on the unusual to confirm the illusion of world travel and to validate their belief that they belonged to a superior culture. One of the more enthusiastic writers of this type,

André Hallays, even called his column in the Journal des débats 'En Flânant." Two commentators,

Judith Gautier and Julien Tiersot, made notable efforts to serve as mediators across the racial/ cultural divide. They examined the exotic more closely for the satisfaction of more sophisticated, contemplative travellers rather than for superficial tourists. Nonetheless, they, too, brought with them a truly ethnocentric biasd. As in 1889, the 1900 Exposition presented living displays of indigenous people whose colorful presence and performances helped reinforce the sense of 'otherness" and the correctness of evolutionism. 32
Ethnic parades were popular novelties dfor visitors and Paridsians alike: [T]he joyous parade of natives from our colonies with their costumes that are novel for the public, their original and largely unexpected music, all had the most vivid success yesterday evening. For my part, I know people who, resolved to dine at the Exposition only once a week, chose Wednesday in order to be there from the moment the procession is formed and the blacks begin their noisy, joyous promenade across the Trocadéro and the Champ de Mars. 33
A lavishly illustrated coffee table book designed as a tourist souvenir serves as a digest of popular understanding of the Exposition"s meaning and baldly reveals the view of others that underlay the French colonial mission civilatrice. At the Indochina exhibit its author Albert Quantin was sure that he had spotted 'no hostility hidden in the faces of this people used to successive and heavy servitude for centuries, who could only see us as emancipators." 34

His text vaguely

echoes the then-current debate of the relative merits of assimilation versus association as the basis of colonial pdolicy. 35
Regarding the inferior and dintermediate races of dthe colonies, he asdks: Should we be content to use them with kindness or should we raise them en masse to the European level? Sentimental enthusiasm is dangerous in this matter, and it would certainly suffice not to put a barrier in the way of the blossoming of the elite"s potential ... Long centuries at a minimum will be necessary to efface the atavism of barbarism as old as the world. 36
32
For an interesting discussion of this phenomenon and its development in the twentieth century, see Nick Stanley, Being Ourselves for You: The Global Display olf Cultures (London: Middlesex UP, 1998). 33

Edmond Le Roy, 'À L"Exposition,"

Le Journal 26 July 1900: 2. It reads: 'le défilé joyeux des indigènes de nos colonies, avec leurs costumes nouveaux pour le public, leurs musiques originales et la plupart

inattendues, tout celad a eu le plus vif dsuccès hier soir. Pour ma part, je codnnais des gens qui, rédsolus à ne

pas dîner à l"Exposition qu"une fois par semaine, ont choisi le mercredi afin d"être là dès le moment où le

cortège se forme et où le noirs commencent leur promenade bruyante et gaie à travers le Trocadéro et le

Champ de Mars."

34

Albert Quantin, L"Exposition du siècle, 14 avril-12 novembre 1900 (Paris: Le Monde moderne, 1900) 183.

'Aucune hostilité cachée sur les visages de ce peuple habitué depuis des siècles à des servitudes successives

et pesantes, qui ne pdeut voir en nous que ddes émancipateurs et qude nous attacherons facilement."

35

For an extended discussion of this change in policy, see Raymond F. Betts, Assimilation and Association in

French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (New York: Columbia UP, 1961). 36

Quantin, L"Exposition du siècle 187. '[À] propos de l"utilisation des races indigènes. Il faut bien dire

qu"elles sont inférieures. Faut-il se contenter de les utiliser avec douceur, ou doit-on les élever en masse

au niveau européen? Les entraînements sentimentaux sont dangeureux en cette matière, et il suffirait

certainement de ne pas mettre une barrière à l"éclosion des intelligences d"élite qui peuvent naître sous

toutes les latitudes ... De longs siècles au moins sont nécessaires pour effacer l"atavisme d"une barbarie

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