[PDF] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA IRVINE Abortion in France: Private

©2015CynthiaCardona

viCURRICULUMVITAECynthiaCardonaEDUCATIONDoctorateofP ilosop yinHi tory,Degreeexpected,August2015UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,CADissertation:AbortioninFrance:PrivateStrugglesandPublicDebates,1970-1985MasterofArtsinHi tory,December2010UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,CABac elorofArtsinHi tory,andFrench,May2007CaliforniaLut eranUniversity,T ousandOaks,CAHONORS/AFFILIATIONSRecipientoft eWesternSocietyforFrenc HistoryMillstonefellows ip,2013Recipientoft eHumanitiesCenterGrant,2010Recipientoft eGraduateStudentSummerInternationalTravelResearc Grant,2010Recipientoft eHispanicSc olars ipFundGeneralSc olars ip,2008PiDeltaP i,CaliforniaLut eranUniversityRecipientoft eCommunityLeadersAssociationsc olars ip,2006-2007TEACHINGEXPERIENCETEACHINGASSOCIATEHuman1AC-CSHumanitiesCoreWriting,WritingDirector,LarisaCastillo,P DUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineFall2014-Spring2015Frenc 1A-1CFundamentals,AcademicCoordinator,MaryseMijalsky,P DUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineFall2011-Summer2014TEACHINGASSISTANTHist100WWorldWarIIEra,Instructor,Sara Farmer,P DUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineSpring2014AsianAm52AsianAmericanCommunities,InstructorLindaVo,P DUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineWinter2014Hist114/RelStd141Historyoft eHolocaust,Instructor,Step anieC asin,P .D.UniversityofCalifornia,IrvineSpring2011Hist21BWorldHistory:1650-1870,Instructor,MarkLeVine,P .D.UniversityofCalifornia,IrvineWinter2011

viiAfAm154BlackCultureasProtest:ExaminingHipHop,Instructor:KristineWrig t,P .D.UniversityofCalifornia,IrvineFall2008RESEARCHEXPERINCEBibliot èquenationaledeFranceLeCentred'arc ivesduFéminismeatt eUniversityofAngersLesArc ivesdépartementalesdelaSeine-Saint-DenisACADEMICSERVICEDiverseEducationalCommunityandDoctoralExperience(DECADE)StudentCouncil,2012-2015HistoryGraduateStudentAssociation,2007-2015CONFERENCEPRENTATIONS"TowardsSexualFreedom:T eBobignyTrialandt eStruggleOverAbortioninFrance"HistoryGraduateStudentConference,UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,May2009.LANGUAGESFluentinEnglis ,Spanis ,andFrenc

viiiABSTRACTOFTHEDISSERTATIONAbortioninFrance:PrivateStrugglesandPublicDebates,1920-1980ByCynthiaCardonaDoctorofPhilosophyinHistoryUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,2015ProfessorTimothyTackett,Co-ChairAssociateProfessorSarahBennettFarmer,Co-ChairFrom1970to1975Frenc feministsledasuccessfulpro-abortionmovementinFrance.T ismovementtransformedt ewayFrenc menandwomenunderstoodsexandsexualityandultimatelyseparatedreproductionfromsexuality.Despiteinternaldivisions,feministseffectivelyorganizedandlaunc edapoliticalandsocialcampaignt atledtomoreopendiscussionaboutcontraception,sex,andsexuality.In1920alawwaspassedwit pronatalistsupport,makingabortionandmostformsofcontraceptionillegal(condomsbeingt esoleexception).T iswasasignificantincursionintot eprivatelivesofindividualsandarepressiveregulationofwomen'sbodiesbutwasmadepossiblebyt e ugenumberofmalelossesafterWWIt atintensifiedfearsofdepopulationsnationalstrengt .Int e1960sand1970sfeministsorganizedtoc allenget islawandin1965successfullylobbiedfort elegalizationofcontraception,including"t epill."Inot erWesterncountries,suc asGreatBritainandt eUnitedStates, istoriansusuallyattributet ecauseoft esexualrevolutiontot econtraceptioncampaignoffeministsandt ewidespreaduseoforalcontraceptives.T esituationinFrancewasmorecomplicated, owever,becauset econtraceptionmovement

ixadoptedamorefamilyorientedtoneandr etoric.Inaddition,t elegalizationofcontraceptivedevicesdidnotleadtoawidespreadavailability.Somedoctorswerereluctanttoprescribe ormonalbirt controltoanyone,especiallyunmarriedwomen,forfearofpromotingpromiscuity.Myresearc suggestst att ekeyturningpointfort eseparationbetweensexandreproductionwasinfactt epro-abortionmovementoft e1970s.Radicalfeministsoft eperiodreflectedt eviewt atwomen'sroleinsocietywasprimarilyt atofmot er ood.Moreover,t eyspear eadedamovementt atmadereproductiverig tscentraltofemaleautonomy.T isdissertationanalysest epublicdebatest atfeministsorc estratedaroundt eissueofabortion,w ic ledtoanincreasedawarenessofnewformsofcontraceptionandmadesafe,medicalabortionarealityforallFrenc womenregardlessofclass.Italsofocusesonwomen'stestimoniesascentraltot eabortionmovement.

1INTRODUCTIONBetween1970and1975Frenc feministsledasuccessfulpro-abortionmovementinFrance.T ismovementtransformedt ewayFrenc menandwomenunderstoodsexandsexualityandultimatelyseparatedreproductionfromsexuality.Despiteinternaldivisions,feministseffectivelyorganizedandlaunc edapoliticalandsocialcampaignt atledtomoreopendiscussionaboutcontraception,sex,andsexuality.A1920lawpassedwit pronatalistsupportint econtextofdepopulationfears admadeabortionandmostformsofcontraceptionillegal(condomsbeingt esoleexception).Int e1960sand1970sfeministsorganizedtoc allenget islawandin1965successfullylobbiedfort elegalizationofcontraception,including"t epill."Inot erWesterncountries,suc asGreatBritainandt eUnitedStates, istoriansusuallyattributet ecauseoft esexualrevolutiontot econtraceptioncampaignoffeministsandt ewidespreaduseoforalcontraceptives.T esituationinFrancewasmorecomplicated, owever,becauset econtraceptionmovementadoptedamorefamilyorientedtoneandr etoric.Inaddition,t elegalizationofcontraceptivedevicesdidnotleadtoawidespreadavailability.Somedoctorswerereluctanttoprescribe ormonalbirt controltoanyone,especiallyunmarriedwomen,forfearofpromotingpromiscuity.Myresearc suggestst att ekeyturningpointfort eseparationbetweensexandreproductionwasinfactt epro-abortionmovementoft e1970s.Radicalfeministsoft eperiodreflectedt eviewt atwomen'sroleinsocietywasprimarilyt atofmot er ood.Moreover,t eyspear eadedamovementt atmadereproductiverig tscentraltofemaleautonomy.T isdissertationanalysest epublicdebatest atfeministsorc estratedaroundt eissueofabortion,w ic ledtoanincreasedawarenessofnewformsofcontraceptionand

2madesafe,medicalabortionarealityforallFrenc womenregardlessofclass.Italsofocusesonwomen'stestimoniesascentraltot eabortionmovement.Infact,evenundert elawof1920, adenoug moneys ecouldalwaysfindadoctorinFrancewillingtoperformanabortion.Feminists ig lig tedt iscriticalclassproblemtomaket eircaseagainstt erepressiveandantiquatedlawbyopenlydefyingit.In1971,343prominentFrenc womenpubliclydeclaredt att ey adundergoneanabortioninamanifestopublis edbyLeNouvelObservateur.Manyoft eindividualsw osignedt emanifestowerewell-knownpublicfigures,includingfeministwritersSimonedeBeauvoirandMargueriteDuras,filmmakerAgnèsVarda,andmoviestarCat erineDeneuve.T emanifestoitselfwasanactofcivildisobedience.Bysigningitt esewomenmadet emselvesliableforprosecution.Itwasint eaftermat oft ismanifestot atmilitantsdecidedtolaunc alegalcampaignagainstt e1920law.FeministlawyerGisèleHalimifoundedt eassociationC oisirwit t especificgoalofdefendingwomenw owereprosecutedfor aving adanabortion,andt erebyc allenget elaw.T e1972caseofsixteen-yearoldMarie-ClaireC evalierfromaworking-classfamilyint eParisiansuburbofBobignyprovidedfeministswit t eperfectplatformforputtingt e1920lawontrialandsupportingt epositiont atwomen adarig ttocontrolt eirownbodies.T eBobignytrialwouldcatalyzet eabortionmovement,becauseitbot legallyc allengedrepressivelegislationandengagedactorsfromdiversesocialperspectivesintoanopennationaldebate.Untilrecently,verylittle adbeenwrittenont e istoryoft eabortionmovementinFrance.Int elasttwodecades istorians avebeenprimarilyconcernedwit preservingt e istoryoffeministorganizationssuc andt eMouvementdeLibérationdesfemmes(MLF),

3Mouvementpourlalibertédel'avortementetdelacontraception(MLAC),andPlanningFamilial(alsoknownast eMouvementfrançaisepourleplanningfamilialorMFPFandpreviouslyMaternitéHeureuse).1T isdissertationdrawsont isresearc w ileseekingtoplacet e istoryoft eseorganizationsint econtextlargersocialc ange.ItalsofocusesonC oisirascentraltot eabortionmovementinitsroleinarticulatingt epropositionst atweremosteffectivelyandfrequentlyused.HistoriansofmodernFrancecitet eBobignytrialasakeymomentfort eabortionmovements,butlargelyneglectC oisir'splace.Muc t esamecouldbesaidofMLAC,w ic playedacentralroleasanorganizationt atreac edouttoworking-classwomenandprovidedaccesstocontraceptiveandabortioninformation.Indefianceoft elaw,MLACmilitantsprovidedwomenwit moreaffordableandsafemedicalabortions,w et erperformingt eprocedurest emselvesandorganizingtripsabroadfort ispurpose.T eMLACarc ivesprovidearic sourceofinformationont eorganization'srapiddevelopmentandt erelations ipbetweenFrenc womenandMLAC.Infactpreviousstudiesofc angingsexualmoresandt eplaceofsexandsexualityinFrenc society avetendedtofocusont eperiodbeforet e1970soron ormonalbirt controlascentraltocreatingasexualrevolution.HistorianAnne-MarieSo nfocusesonlanguageandsubtlebe avioralc angest atledtoasexualrevolutionovert ecourseofacentury.2Herworkisespeciallyimportantinplacingt eabortionmovementint econtextof 1Christine Bard, and Janine Mossuz-Lavau, Le planning familial: histoire et mémoire, 1956-2006 (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2007). Claire Duchen, Feminism in France: From May '68 to Mitterrand (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986). Patricia Godard and Lydie Porée, Les Femmes s'en vont en lutte! Histoire et mémoire du feminisme à Rennes (1965-1985) (Rennes: Éditions Goater, 2014). Mouvement Français pour le Planning Familial. Liberté, sexualités, féminisme: 50 ans de combat du Planning pour les droits des femmes (Paris: Découverte, 2006). 2Anne-MarieSo n,DuPremièrebaiseràl'alcôve:LasexualitédesFrançaisauquotidien,1850-1950(France:Aubier,1996).Âgetenderettêtedebois:Histoiredesjeunesdesannées1960(Paris:Hac ette,2001).Chrysalides:

4c angingsexualculturesinFrance.PoliticalscientistJanineMoussuz-Lavausituatest etransformationinattitudesduringt epost-1968period,w enfeministsdemandedt edevelopmentofsexualeducationandt elegalrecognitionofsexualviolence.3InasecondstudyMoussuz-Lavaualongwit sc olarsSylvieC aperon,XavierGaut ier,andClaireDuc enalsofocusont elongtwentiet century,andidentifyt eimportanceofwomen'spoliticalactivity,especiallyafter1968w enanewwaveofFrenc feminismemerged.4Alloft emstress,t att emostimportantandtangibleresultoft esocialandstudentmovementof1968wasat eradicalizationofFrenc feminismt atfort efirsttimemadet elegalizationofabortionincentralgoal.Studiesint efieldofwomen'sandgender istoryintwentiet centuryFrance avefocusedprimarilyont eT irdRepublicandt esuffragemovementinFrance,t ereforestoppingwellbeforet edecadeoft eabortionmovement.Suc studiesare, owever,relevantint eirtreatmentoft e1920lawandt eperceiveddemograp iccrisis.JamesMcMillan'sanalysisoft atlawplacesitwit int econtextofFranceaftert eFirstWorldWar.Hearguest atitwaspartofaconsolidationofdomesticity,pus edbypronatalistsandbyfearsofdepopulation.5MaryLouiseRobertsalsodiscussest epopulationcrisisandlooksatt ewaywordssuc as"contraception,""abortion,""depopulation,"and"natality"weregivennew femmesdanslavieprivée(XIXe-XXesiècles)vol.IandII(Paris:PublicationdelaSorbonne,1996).LaureAdler,Secretsd'alcôve:historieducouplede1830à1930(Aubin:ÉditionsHac ette-Litterature,1983).3 Janine Moussuz-Lavau, Les lois de l'amour: Les politiques de la sexualité en France 1950-1990 (Paris: Documents Payot, 1991). La vie sexuelle en France (Paris: Éditions de La Martinière, 2002). 4 Sylvie Chaperon, Les années Beauvoir 1945-1970 (Paris: Fayard, 2000). Xavier Gauthier, Naissance d'un Liberté : Avortement, contraception, le grand combat des femmes au XXe siècle (Paris : Robert Laffont, 2002). Claire Duchen, Feminism in France: From May '68 to Mitterrand (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986). 5 James E. McMillan, Housewife or Harlot: The Place of Women in French Society 1870-1940 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981). For other histories of women in the twentieth century see: Christine Bard, Les Femmes dans la Société Française au 20e Siècle (Paris: Armand Colin, 2001) and Ann-Marie Sohn, Chrysalides: femmes dans la vie privée (XIXe-XXe siècles), vol. I and II (Paris: Publication de la Sorbonne, 1996).

5meaningbyt eenormouswarlosses.6Mot er ood,t erefore,becameimportantaspartoft enatalistefforttorevitalizeFranceandestablis itonapat towardsrenewalandredemption.Onlyafewradicalfeminists,includingMadeleinePelletier(1874-1939),ap ysicianandbirt controladvocate,daredtocritiquet enatalistmovement,w ic adbecomeadominantforceinFrenc politicsandculture.7Roberts'treatmentisespeciallysignificantw enitisjuxtaposedwit ClaireDuc en'sanalysisoft edefenseusedatt eBobignytrialmoret anfiftyyearslater.Duc enarguest att eattempttooverturnt elawlostitsoriginalfeministpremise.8Duc enpaysspecialattentiontot edifferentapproac estakenbyt eMLF,MLAC,C oisirandt egenerallackofagreementamongfeministgroups.InfactC oisiroptedforaclassbaseddefenseoft ewomenontrial,evenasot erfeministgroupsarguedt atabortionandcontraceptionneededtobetreatedaspartofawoman'srig tover erownbody.AccordingtoDuc en,feministattitudestowardmot er oodwerec anging,fromviewingitasaformofslaverytoacceptingitasapositiveexperience.ElinorAccampo'sworkoncontraceptiondiscussest efactt att erewasalreadywidespreaduseofcontraceptionduringt esecond alfoft enineteent -century,beforeanorganizedbirt controlmovementbeganinFrance.S enotest atw ilecontraception,especiallyaspracticedt roug wit drawalandcondoms,dependedonmen,w ile 6 Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France 1917-1920 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), 120. 7Roberts,CivilizationwithoutSexes,98.8 Claire Duchen, Feminism in France: From May '68 to Mitterrand (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986). Women's Rights and Women's Lives in France, 1944-1968 (NewYork: Routledge, 1994).

6abortion,w ic tookplaceaftersexwasoftendonewit outt eknowledgeofmen.9Indeed,incontrasttocontraception,abortionwasawomen-centeredpractice.AfewrecentstudiesinFrance avebegunanalyzingabortionandspecificallyt eabortionmovementoft e1970sina istorical,rat ert anpoliticalorsocialscienceperspective.Sc olarsJean-IvesNaourandCat erineValenti aveexploredt edevelopmentofabortionanditsrelations ipwit t elawt roug t enineteent andtwentiet centuries.10Only istorianCat erineValentifocusesont etrialalone,butwritesforapopularaudience.11Ot erFrenc istorians aveconcentratedont eloiVeilandexaminedt elegislativeframeworkinw ic abortionwaslegalizedinFrance.12Myworkdrawsont esestudies,butalsotakesintoaccountt ebroadersocialcontextandt everyimportantrelations ipbetweenwomenanddoctors.HistorianBibiaPavard'srecentstudyofcontraceptionandabortioninFranceprovidedric oralsources.13Pavardcoversbot t ebirt controlandabortionmovementswit particularanalysisoft emilitantsw omadeupt emovement,toget erwit t evariousfeministorganizations.Pavardbeginswit t isquestion: owwasc angepossible?Heranswerist att eindividualwomenandmenmadet elegalizationofabortionpossible.Individualpoliticiansandactivistswereatt e eartoft eprocesst atledtoc ange.S es owst atw ilesomewomenjoinedapreferredorganization,manyjoinedseveralandfordifferentreasons.T esewomenwerepoliticallycommitted,somenewlyso,andoften ad 9ElinorAccampo,"T eGenderedNatureofContraception,"JournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory34,no.2,(Autumn,2003):235-262.10Jean-YvesleNaourandCat erineValenti,Historiedeavortementxixe-xxesiècle(Paris:ÉditionsduSeuil,2003).11Cat erineValenti,Bobigny:leprocèsdel'avortement(Paris:Larousse,2010).12BibiaPavard,FlorenceRoc efort,andMic elleZancarini-Fournel,LesloisVeil:Contraception1974,IVG1975,(Paris:ArmandColin,2012).13BibiaPavard,Sijeveux,quandjeveux:contraceptionetavortementdanslasociétéfrançaise(Rennes:PresseUniversitairedeRennes,2012).

7personalmotivesandstoriestojustifyt eirinvolvement.Myapproac focuseslessont emilitantsandmoreont ewomenw osoug tt eservicesoffeministsorganizationstos owt atitwast eyt edeterminedt epat t att oseorganizationstook.Ont etopicsofcontraceptionandabortion, istoriansusually avelimitedarc ivalsourcesdetailingwomen'semotionalandp ysicalexperiences.T esesubjects avebeentabooand istorians ave adtoreadagainstt egraininexaminingcourtrecords,diariesandcorrespondencetofindwomen'sstories.T efeministcampaignsoft e1970sbyengagingt epublicatlarge,placedt epersonalexperiencesofwomenint eforefront.Feministorganizations avealsopreservedmanyoft osestories.Someoft emarearc ivedint epublicrecord,aswomenwrotetonewspapers,magazines,andnewsletters.Mostimportantly,t ey avealsobeenpreservedint eformofletters.T earc ivesatt eCentredesarc ivesduFéminismeint eBibliot èqueuniversitaired'Angers oldst eMLACcollectiont atincludesroug ly104letterswrittentot eorganizationbywomen,andsomemen.T eseneverbeforestudiedletterstellt epersonalstoriesofwomenw osoug tcontraceptionandabortioninformation.T eyrevealt atwomenw owereseekingtoendt eirpregnanciesdirectlyinfluencedt eabortionmovementandmadesignificantdemands.Intracingt eactivitiesoft ewomen'smovementsbetween1950and1980mydissertations owst atfeministorganizationsrespondedtot eneedsofFrenc womenw osoug tabortion,anddespitesomeclas es,t eysucceeded.C apterone,"FeminismandAbortioninFrancefromt eCivilCodeof1804tot e1970s,"tracest e istoryofcontraceptioninFrancet roug aseriesofquestions.W ywasanabortionmovementnecessary?Howwereabortionandcontraceptioncriminalized?T ec apterexaminest e

8socialandpoliticalplaceofcontraceptionandabortion,ands owst at,w ilet eywerelargelylocatedint es adowsofsociety,t ere avealsobeenmomentsinw ic abortionandcontraceptionemergedast esubjectsofimportantnationaldiscussions.Int etwentiet centuryt isoccurredin1920wit t erevivalofpronatalistcampaignsasareactiontot e ugelossofmenduringWWII.DuringWorldWarIIt eVic yregimeplacedintensefocusonwork,family,andcountry.Againint e1960sw enwomencampaignedforaccesstobirt control,andfinallyafter1968wit t eemergenceoft eabortioncampaign.Womenineac generationbuildont esemomentsandint e1970sradicalfeministsfoundt erig tstrategiestoengineerasuccessfulabortionmovement.Inc aptertwo,"T eBobignyTrial:RadicalFrenc feminismandt esexualrevolutioninFrance,"Iuset epublis edtranscriptoft eBobignytrialasaspringboardtoanalyzet eplaceofsexualityandreproductioninFrenc lawandsocietyint e1970s.Int eabsenceofot erwrittenrecords, istorianstypicallyusetrialrecordstoextrapolatecultural,social,andpoliticalmeanings.W ile istoriansofmedievalandearlymodernEurope avemorecommonlyusedt ismet odology,modern istorianssuc asEdwardBerenson avealsodemonstratedt eusefulnessoftrialrecordsfortwentiet century istory.14Berensonanalyzedt e1914trialtestimonyasawaytodecodepowerrelationsbetweent esexesduringt isprewarperiod.Heargues:"T eCaillauxAffairmakesitclear...t at istoriansoft erecentpastcanalsousekeytrialstoconsideraspectsofcultureandpoliticsoftenobscuredinnarrativesorlarger istoricalprocesses."15FollowingBerenson'smodelt esecondc apterlooksatt edifferentplayersinvolvedint eevent.Itfocusesinparticularon owt etrial elpedfeministstodevisea 14EdwardBerenson,TheTrialofMadameCaillaux(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992).15Ibid.,8.

9strategyforadvancingwomen'sreproductiverig ts,onet atincludedmembersoft emedicalprofessionint ecampaign.T ec apteralsoanalyzesnewspapercoverageoft etrialands owst atfeministconcernsdominatedt enationaldiscussiononabortion.T etrialcentersont estoryofworking-classwomen,ateenagerw odidnotwanttobeamot erand ermot er,w oprocuredanabortionfor er.W ileillegal,abortionswereinfact,commonlyperformedbysomedoctors.However,t ecostinvolvedwasoftenoutofreac forworkingclasswomen.T etrialwast ereforenotjustaboutfeminismbutalsoaboutgender,t eplaceofwomenandt eirbodiesinsociety,aswellasclassandaccesstoasafemedicalprocedure.Insum,itwasalsoaboutwomen'slivesandt erig ttoc oosemot er oodornot.Inc aptert ree,entitled"W attodo?SeekinganAbortioninFrance:PersonalStories,MLACandC oisir,"Iexamineabortionaftert eBobignytrialt roug aclosereadingofacollectionoflittleknownprivatelettersfromFrenc w owerewomenseekingabortions.Ianalyzet eseletterstofeministorganizationssuc asC oisirandt eMouvementpourlaLibertédel'AvortementetlaContraception(MLAC).T elettersprovideawindowintot emindsofwomenw osoug tabortions.Amongot ert emes,t ey ig lig tt elackofinformationavailable--especiallytoworking-classwomen--aboutfamilyplanningandcontraception.Here istorianJudit G.Coffin asprovidedamodelwit eranalysisofletterswrittentoSimonedeBeauvoir.16W ileCoffiniscarefulindescribingt elettersastoopersonaltoprovideabroader istory,s eusedt emtodiscusst ewaysinw ic t ewomenwritingtoBeauvoirint e1950sconstructedasenseofself.17Unliket eMLACletters,t osesentto 16Judit G.Coffin,"Sex,Love,andLetters:WritingSimonedeBeauvoir,1949-1963,"TheAmericanHistoricalReview,vol.115,no.4,(October2010):1061-1088.17Ibid.,1062.

10Beauvoirtouc onawiderarrayoftopicsincludingwork,marriage, omosexuality,andc ild oodexperiences.Ont eot er and,someoft osereac ingouttoBeauvoirwroteto eraboutunwantedpregnanciesandexpressedpain,confusionandignoranceonsexualmatters.18Byanalyzingt econtentandwordingoft elettersCoffinisabletoextrapolateont erelations ipbetweenBeauvoirand erreaders,aswellasont eprivatelivesandknowledgeoft osewritingto er.Int esamewayt eMLACletterstellusaboutt erelations ipbetweenMLACandFrenc womenacrossFrance,aswellast osewomen'sverypersonalexperiences,especiallyregardingt eircontraceptiveandabortionneeds.LetterswrittentoC oisircomplementt eMLACletters.T elettersspeaktot eurgencywit w ic womensoug tcontraceptionandabortionservicesandt emanydifficultiest atwomenexperienced.T eyrevealbot gapsinwomen'sknowledgeaboutt etec nologiesofbirt controlandt econstantandsometimesoverw elmingimpactoffamilialconcerns.Indeed,abortionwasverymuc tabooinFrenc societyandmanywomentookasignificantriskeveninwritingaboutittoMLACandC oisir.W ilewomenwrotemostoft elettersinquestion,somewerealsowrittenbymen.W ileabortionrig tsmostdirectlyimpactedwomen'sbodies,t eabilitytoplanfamiliesandterminateunwantedpregnanciesalsoinvolved usbands,boyfriendsandextendedfamilies,someofw omwrotetofeministorganizationsfor elp.C apterfourisdevotedto"T eloiVeilandMLAC:redefiningabortioninFrance,"itanalyzest elegislativedebatest atledtot epassageoft eloiVeilof1975t atlegalizedabortioninFranceandt eensuingtrialsandlegaljudgmentst atdelineatedt eparametersof 18Ibid.,1065

11t elaw.T isc apters owst att erelations ipbetweenwomenanddoctorsc angedast elawwasc allengedbyactivistsw obelievedt atwomens ould aveunrestrictedaccesstoabortion.Legislativeandcourtroombattlesallowustoexaminet elinksbetweent elaw,medicalprofessionals,patients,andfeminists.T esecontingentrelations ipsmattered ere,ast eydefinedwomen'saccesstoabortionaftert epassageoft enewlegislation.T esourcematerial erewasderivedfromt erecordsoflegislativedebatesont eflooroft eNationalAssemblyaswellasfromt enewspaperandtelevisioncoverageoft edebatesandensuingtrials.Currentdebatesint eUnitedStatesonwomen's ealt andaccesstocontraceptionandabortionmaket isdissertationespeciallyrelevant.T eFrenc storys owst att esediscussions avea istoryinw ic femalesexuality asbeenlinkedtofamilyplanningforsocio-politicalreasonst atmadeitdifficultforwomentocontrolt eirownbodies.T e istoryoffeminismalsodemonstratest atw ensexandreproductionareseparatedit asmeantincreasedaccesstofamilyplanningmet odsandfemaleautonomy.T estruggleforaccesstocontraceptionandabortionrig tsiskeytounderstandingt eroleofwomeninsociety.Indeed,int e1970sFrenc womenandmenredefinedw atitmeanttobeagenderedcitizen.

12Chapter1:FeminismandAbortioninFrance:FromtheCivilCodeof1804tothe1970sINTRODUCTIONW enbirt controlfailswomenw odonotwantc ildrenand/orcannotaffordt em,turntoabortion.Evenw enabortionwasillegalanddespitet esocialstigmat at asaccompaniedit,women avecontinuedtoseekitout,sometimesriskingt eirlivesint eprocess.T estoryofabortioninFrance,weavestoget er istoricalnarrativesoffeminism,depopulation,andnationalism.T ecivilstatusofwomeninFrenc society asoftendefinedt eroleplayedbyt estateint eregulationofwomen'sbodies.T roug legalregulations,successiveFrenc governmentsint enineteent andtwentiet centuries avesoug ttopromotemot er oodbot ast esociallyacceptableroleforwomenandasameansofincreasingfamilysizeandpopulationandt erebyt estate'sabilitytowagewar.Feministst roug outt isperiod aveoftenusedsuc maternalistcampaignsasjustificationforfemalepoliticalenfranc isementandt elegalizationofbirt control.W ileeac waveofFrenc feminism,fromt enineteent -centurysuffragistcampaignstot econtraceptionmovement, admadeasignificantimpactont elivesofFrenc women,itwasnotuntilt e1970st atFrenc feministsmadeacaseforawoman'sexplicitrig tto

13control erownbody.T eyusedcampaignandprotesttacticsborrowedfromt emostradicalsocialmovementsoft etime.Akeyturningpointint iscampaignwast e1968studentandworkersmovement.T eeventsoft atyearrockedFrancebutsc olarsagreet att emovement'ssuccessinprovokingreformwasminimal.T emostimportantresultoft eprotestswas,undoug tedly,t eemergenceofanewwaveofFrenc feminism.T iswave,moreradicalt ananyoft epreviousones,wascenteredonbirt controlandawoman'srig ttoc oose.Indeed,Frenc feministsoft e1970sfocusedonfig tingforabortionrig tsandfort erepealoft erepressive1920lawt at admadecontraceptionandabortionillegalinFrance.Int ecourseoft eirstruggle,t emadeacasetot eFrenc nationasaw oleont einjusticeoft elaw.T us,t eabortionmovementwasbornoutoft emaledominatedsocialprotestsof1968andt eneedforafemaleledt atincludedt eworking-classmovement.ABORTIONANDBIRTHCONTROLINTHEANCIENRÉGIMEInancienrégimeFrance,abortionwasprobablyarelativelycommonoccurrencet atwasonlyrarelyprosecuted.Partoft eproblemwast edifficultyt atlegal,religious,andmedicalaut orities adindistinguis ingbetweenamiscarriageandanabortion.Infact,self-inducedabortionswereanincreasingproblemasnotedbyt enumberofremindersgiventowomenbybot doctorsandt etotakebasicprecautionsagainstaccidentalabortions.19HistorianFrançoisLebrunnotedt atalt oug t eCat olicC urc strictlypro ibitedabortion, 19FrançoisLebrun,Lavieconjugalesousl'ancienrégime(Paris:ArmandColin,1975),148.

14t ereexistedambiguitywit regardtot emomentinw ic lifebegan.20Iflifedidnotbeginatconception,t enint eirt eoryt eremig tberoomforareligiouslyacceptableabortion.Alt oug abortionatt istimewasacriminaloffence,itwasnotstrictlyrepressedorenforcedasitwouldbelaterint etwentiet century.Beforet esixteent centuryt epunis mentforabortionfellundert epurviewoft eC urc andcasesweretriedinecclesiasticalcourts.Fromt atperiodonwardsitbegantosolelyfallundert edomainofroyalcourts.However,convictionswereunusual,givent edifficultyinprovingt atanabortionrat ert anamiscarriageoranaccident adtakenplace.Asforcontraception,demograp icdatademonstratest atitwaswidelypracticedduringt eOldRegime.Condomsappearedint eeig teent -centurybutweremostcommonlyusedbyprostitutesand"libertines."21T us,wit drawalwasprobablyt emostwidelypracticedformofbirt controlanddemograp icstatisticsstronglysuggestadeliberatereductioninbirt rates.AccordingtoFrançoisLebrun:lenombred'enfantsparfamillecomplèteestde2,7entre1700et1749ettombeà2entre1750et1799;laféconditédesfemmesentre30et40ans,trèsbassedèslafinduXVIIsiècle,diminuedefaçoncontinuetoutaulongdusièclesuivant;l'âgeàladernièrenaissancedesmèresmariéesavant20ans(l'âgemoyenaumariagec ezlesépousesdesducsetpairsest,onlesait,de18ans)est31ansentre1650et1699,26entre1700et1749,25entre1750et1799.22T esetrendsleadustobelievet atFrenc menandwomenweredeeplyconcernedwit familysizeandt efinancialburdenof avingc ildren.T is"contraceptiverevolution"occurredbeforet edevelopmentandt eadventoft econtraceptivepill,t oug mostsignificantly,t ewit drawalmet odplacedbirt controlint e andsofmenrat ert anwomen.Womencould 20Ibid.,149.21Lebrun,Lavieconjugalesousl'ancienrégime,161.22Ibid.,162-163.

15useextendedbreastfeedingasameansofspacingbirt sandcouldalsoinfluence usbandswit "complaints...aboutallt atitcostt emtobringc ildrenintot eworld."23YetC urc doctrineprivilegedmen'smaritalrig ttosexoverfemaleneedsorwants.Asaresult,bot t eC urc andt eFrenc statepolicedwomen'sbodiesandcreatedarelativelys arplinebetweent eprivateworldoft e omeandt epublicsp ere.THEFRENCHREVOLUTIONTOTHECIVILCODET e umanitarianidealsoft eFrenc Revolutioncreatedaspaceforanexpansionofwomen'srig ts.HistorianSuzanneDesan ass ownt atwomenc allengedgenderrelations ipsbytakinganactivepartint eRevolution.24Womenwrotepetitions,andpamp lets,andvoicedgrievancesusingt elanguageoft erevolution.Playwrig tandactivistOlympedeGougesaddressedt eNationalAssemblydirectlyandassertedwomen'sequalrig tsascitizens.W ilewomenneverinfactwont erig ttovoteor oldpublicofficeduringt eRevolution,t eydidwinsignificantlegalreforms,int eirfavorincludingt erig ttodivorce,todirectlyin eritwealt andtojointlycontrolt elivesoft eirc ildren.Int iswayt epatriarc alstructureoft eOldRegimefamilywasc allenged,assuringt att elegacyoft eRevolutionforwomenwasmoret anjustt eidealoft eRepublicanmot er.Alt oug t efamilyremainedt ecentralelementint erevolutionaryre-definitionofcitizens ipandcivilsociety,womentookadvantageoft ereformingmoment,inordertore-definefamilystructures.Desans owst atassoonaswomenobtainedt erig ttolegally 23AngusMcLaren,AHistoryofContraception:FromAntiquitytothePresentDay(Cambridge:BasilBlackwell,1990),168.24SuzanneDesan,TheFamilyonTrialinRevolutionaryFrance(Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004).

16divorcet eir usbands,asurprisingnumbersprofitedfromt epossibilityandinfact"urbanwomenofartisanalprofessionalclassesinitiateddivorcemoret ananyot ergroup...."25Somewomenwerere-evaluatingt eirmarriages,andbyinitiatingt edivorcet emselvesandassertingt eirlegalprerogatives.T ispracticemarkedadistinctbreakfromt eOldRegimeandalegalframeworkt at addeniedwomenandment erig ttoendmarriages.W ilet eRevolutionopeneddoorsforreformt eCivilCodeof1804closedt em.Instarkcontrasttot eac ievementsof1792and1793t eCode"reassertedt epatriarc alaut orityoffat ersoverc ildrenand usbandsoverwives...."26Undert enewCivilCodet erewerefewlegalreasonsfordivorceandsoondivorcewasaltoget erforbidden.27Marriedwomenneededt eir usband'spermissiontowork,andcededallparentalcontrolovert eirc ildrenandt emanagementoft eirpersonalproperty.Womenonceagain eldt elegalstatusofminors,andmen adabsolutecontrolovert em.Ont equestionofabortions,t epenalcodeof1791 adciteditasacrimebutitdidnotspecifyanypunis mentfort ewomenw oaborted.Onlyt eabortionistsweretosubjectprosecutionandt eyfaceduptotwentyyearsofincarceration.Alt oug t eCivilCodeof1804didnotcriminalizeabortion,article317oft eCivilCodeof1810wouldformallydeclareittobeillegalandpunis ableregardlessoft emet odutilized.Article317read:Quiconqueparaliments,breuvages,médicaments,violences,oupartoutautremoyen,auraprocurel'avortementd'unefemmeenceinte,soitqu'elleyaitconsentiounon,serapunidelaréclusion.Lamêmepeineseraprononcéecontrelafemmequiseraprocurél'avortementàelle-même,ouquiauraconsentiàusagedesmoyensàelleindiquésouadministrésàceteffet,sil'avortements'enestensuivi.Lesmédecins,c irurgiensetautresofficiersdesanté,ainsiquelesp armaciensquiaurontindiquéou 25Ibid.,7.26Desan,TheFamilyonTrialinRevolutionaryFrance,284.27Divorcewasallowedonlyint ecasesofadultery,p ysicalviolence,cruelty,andint ecaseoflifeimprisonmentofaspouse.

17administrécesmoyens,serontcondamnésàlapeinedestravauxforcésàtemps,danslecasoùl'avortementauraiteulieu.28W ilet earticledidnotspecifyt elengt ofpunis ment,t elanguageint ecriminalizationofabortionwasverystraig tforward.Anymedicalpersonnelw oparticipatedinanabortionfacedcriminalprosecution.Abortiontrialstookplaceint ecoursd'assisses,andweredecidedbyjuries.Infact,duringt enineteent century,t eapplicationoft elawwasrelativelylesssevere,sincenineteent centuryjuriesrarelyfoundwomenanddoctorsguilty.Accordingto istorianJamesDonovan,"T ejuries'refusaltoconvictmanyaccusedpersonsforfeart eywouldbepunis edtoo ars lyundert eRevolutionaryandNapoleonicpenalcodesresultedinaseriesoflegalreforms."29Yetwomenanddoctorsstillcontinuedtobeprosecuted.WOMEN'SMOVEMENTS-19THCENTURYANDEARLY20THCENTURYMostfeministsint enineteent -centuryunderstoodsexualdifferenceasanimportantpartofgenderrelations.Mot er oodwasawoman'srig tandresponsibility,bot asanidealandalivedreality.Bot conservativesw osoug ttolimitwomen'srolestot e ome,andFrenc feministsw oadvocatedforextendedlegalrig tsincludingt erig ttovote,usedt enotionofmot er oodtomaket eircase.T iswasnott eonlyfeminismoft etime,asradicalwomensuc asMadeleinePelletierandNellyRousseladvocatedforbirt controlandevenabortionasameanstowomen'ssexualandpoliticalliberation.T erewerealsosocialistandanarc istgroupst atpracticedfree-lovelifestylesandpromotedgenderequality.T erefore,w ilet edominantseparatesp ere'sideologyoft enineteent andearlytwentiet -centuries 28"CodePénalde1810:Éditionoriginaleenversionintégrale,publiéesousletitre:Codedesdélitsetdespeines,"LeDroitCriminel, ttp://ledroitcriminel.free.fr/la_legislation_criminelle/anciens_textes/code_penal_1810/code_penal_1810_3. tm.29JamesM.Donovan,JuriesandtheTransformationofCriminalJusticeinFrance(C apelHill:T eUniversiyofNort CarolinaPress,2010),12.

18limitedwomen'sroles,alternativeideologiesofemancipationandgenderequalityexistedandenjoyedsomesupport.T esingularlivesandactivismofMadeleinePelletier(1874-1939)andNellyRoussel(1878-1922)embodiedaradicalfeminismt atexistedont esidelinesofpre-WWIfirst-wavefeminism,butwouldfinallycometodefinet efeminist'slongstrugglefort elegalizationofbirt controlandabortionint e1960sand1970s.T oug Pelletier'smilitanismemergedfromaworking-classbackgroundandRoussel'sfromabourgeoisupbringing,bot cameofageinfairlytraditional omesduringt etumultuousyearsodsocialc anget atledtoWWI.Bot playedimportantrolesinc allengingt eprescribedgendernormsoft isperiod.Infact,neit erwascomfortablewit t emot er oodidealand,asaresult,becameatypicalfeministsandultimatelytragicfigures.Pelletiergrewupinaworking-classneig bor oodint esecondarrondissement,w ere ermot er,AnnedePassavyPelletier,ranagrocerys opafterastrokeparalyzed erfat erformt ewaistdown.30AsPelletierrecounted, ermot er adbeenanillegitimatec ild,w okeptaclaustrop obic ouse old,livedabitterlife,experiencedelevenmiscarriages,moreoverasaferventCat olicandpro-monarc ist,s ewas atedfor erpoliticsint eirneig bor ood.31T us ermot erand erreligiousityweredomineeringfactorsinPelletier'searlylife,againstw ic s erebelled,in erc oiceofintellectualpursuitsandleftistpoliticalactivism.Pubertybecameanot erdefiningmomentinPelletier'slife.W ens eexperienced erfirstperiodandlearnedt atallwomensufferedt esamefate,s ereactedwit fearand 30FeliciaGordon,TheIntegralFeminist:MadeleinePelletier,1874-1939(Oxford:PolityPress,1990),8.31Ibid.,11.

19disgust.AsFeliciaGordonobserves:"Pelletier'sexperienceofpubertydidnotturn eragainstmenbutagainstt efemalereproductivedestiny.Itconfirmed erin ersuspiciont atitwaswomen'sbiologyw ic transformedt em...intoobjectsofs amefort emselvesandot ers."32AsaresultPelletierspent erlifedefyingtraditionalfemalerolesand,att eageoft irteen,beganattendingfeministandanarc istmeetings.LikePelletier,NellyRousselalsofelttrappedbywomen'sbiologicaldestiny.Rousselcamefromabourgeoisfamily, ermot ert edaug terofarailroadengineerand erfat erabuildingcontractorw odiedw enRousselwassixteen.33S ereceivedt etraditionalCat oliceducationt atwast ecommonpat forgirlsoft etime.Alt oug s ewaspassionatelyreligious,s ealsopursued erinterestsinactingandt et eater.Apparently,Rousselcelebratedt efemaleiconsoft eday-JoanofArcandt eVirginMary-buts ealsodemonstratedanintellectuallycuriousmind,w ic wasencouragedandradicalizedin1898w ens emet erfuture usband,T omasNel.Roussel'sbirt -controladvocacygrewoutof erfirstpregnancyanddreadofc ildbirt .Int eabsenceofsexeducation,women'sonlyknowledgeofc ildbirt andt efemalebodycamefromfamilymembers,friends,andneig bors.T iswasanimperfectsystem,w erefearsandworst-casescenarioswouldcirculateamplifyingt everyrealdangersoft etime.Duringt isperiodmaternalmortalitycouldriseas ig asninepercent,oftenduetofeverandinfection.34Havingjustbeenfreedoft efamilialrestraintsplacedonyoungwomen,mot er oodappearedtobeacruelimpositiont att reatened ersenseofselfand 32Ibid.,15.33ElinorAccampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit:NellyRousselandthePoliticsofFemalePaininThirdRepublicFrance(Baltimore:T eJo nHopkinsUniversityPress,2006),16.34Accampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit,29.

20autonomy.Unabletoescapet ebiologicaldestinyofmot er ood,s ewoulddevotesubsequently erlifetot eneo-Malt usianbirt controlmovementandot erfeministcauses.T ediscoveryofleftistpoliticsandfeminisminparticularwasfoundationalforbot NellyRousselandMadeleinePelletier.Ass ewasdiscoveringfeminism,Pelletierc allengedexpectations,oftencross-dressing,cutting er airandgoingoutatnig ttoattendmeetings.W ilewomensuc asGeorgeSandbefore er addressedinmen'sclot es,Pelletier'sdresswasstillaprovocationandacontrasttoleadingbourgeoisfeministsw oc osetoembracestylis femininedress.Adoptingmasculineclot ingwasanactofrebellionagainstnotjust erparentsandsociety,butalsoagainstt efeministsw oms ebelievedplacedtoomuc valueonattractingmaleattentionandonsexualdisplay.Incontrast,Pelletiermadecelibacyadeliberatepoliticalc oice,adecisiont atalienated erfromanarc ists,w omocked erfor errefusaltoadoptfree-loveandtakeonlovers.35Pelletier'spoliticaleducationandsearc forpersonalfreedomtook erdownt eroadto ig ereducationandamedicalcareer."Iwantedtoleavet emilieut atmybirt adplacedmeinandIt oug tIcouldsucceedbyenteringt eintellectualworld."36S esuccessfullypassedt ebaccalauréatbystudyingon erownandevenwonasc olars iptofund ermedicalstudies.W ileattendingmedicalsc ools efoundt etrainingconservativeanddecidedlymisogynous.37Aftertryingtoestablis amedicalpractices ec osetoseekaninterns ipint epsyc iatric ospitalservice.Onceagainduring ermedicalstudiess estruggledagainstclassandgenderdiscrimination.W ens etriedtotaket epsyc iatricexam, 35Gordon,TheIntegralFeminist,21.36MadeleinePelletierquotedinGordon,TheIntegralFeminist,23.37Gordon,TheIntegralFeminist,30.

21s ewasflatlydeniedaccessbecauseof ergender.Asaresults elaunc edafeministcampaigntoovercomet isbarrier,enlistingt e elpoft efeministnewspaperLaFronde,establis edbyMargueriteDuras.FemalejournalistsatLaFrondewrotearticleson erplig tandsoug ttopressuret epsyc iatricinstitutiontoallowwomentotaket eexam.Int eendPelletierandLaFrondewont ebattle,andPelletierwentontocomplete erpsyc iatricinterns ipdespitet eextreme ostilitys eexperiencedw ileworkingatamentalasylum.Duringt isperiodPelletier'sfeministandsocialistactivitiesincreased,activitiesw ic may avecontributedto ernarrowfailuretopasst econcoursandestablis acareerinpsyc iatricresearc .38T esimultaneouspursuitofamedicalcareerandpoliticalactivism ig lig tst einterconnectednessofPelletier'sfeministobjectives.Herfeminismwasconnectedto erintellectualpursuitsand erexperienceofmisogynyint emedicalprofession.Infact, ermosts ockingaction,performingabortions,wasbornofbot amedicalandapoliticalcommitment.Pelletieradvocatedpublicallyinfavorofabortion,aradicalpracticet atbecameevenmoredaringafterWWIandt epassageoft epro-natalist1920laww ic madeabortionandcontraceptionillegal.In1911s efirstpublis ed ermanifestoonabortion,entitledPourl'abrogationdel'article317Ledroitàl'avortement,asanintegralpartof erbookL'Émancipationsexuelledelafemme.Inits earguedt atabortionwasnecessarydeclaringt at"Aslongaswomenareconsideredtobeinferiorbeings,onemaysayt atloveisreservedfort emalesex.Womanis 38Gordon,TheIntegralFeminist,70.

22onlyaninstrumentforman'spleasure; econsumes erlikefruit."39AccordingtoPelletier,mot er oodmeantt atwomencouldnotenjoysexandt ereforelove.Oncet ey adac ildwomenwerefinanciallydependentont eir usbandsandt ereforelostallindependence.Inaddition,Pelletierknewt atabortioncouldbesafelypracticedbymedicalprofessionals,ands eused ermedicalcredentialstomaket ecase."Abortionmaycausemetritusandsalpyngitisbutproperlycarriedoutitislessdangeroust anc ildbirt ,sinceint ecaseofgraveillnesses,itiscarriedoutlegally.Abortionavoidst eriskswomenrunfromt esexualactandtoacertainextentliberatest em."40Pelletier'sadvocacyand erpracticeofabortionsledtoproblemswit t elaw,andultimatelyto erforcedcommitmenttoamentalasylum.S ewasfirstc argedfor erabortionpracticein1933.S edeniedt especificaccusationsbutdefendedawomen'srig tto aveanabortion.InalettertofeministArriaLys econfided:"CertainlyIconsidert atwomenarefreeovert eirbodies,butt eseaffairsoft ebellydisgustmeprofoundly."41W iles ewasnotprosecuted,t epoliticalandpro-natalistclimateatt attimemadeitdifficulttoescapefurt erpersecution.Accordingto istorianFeliciaGordon,itisalsoveryprobablet ats econtinuedtoperformabortions,evenafter1933.42In1939s ewasarrestedonabortionc arges,t oug t ecasequicklyturnedont equestionof ersanity.T oug ermedicalrecordscannotbeexaminedt ereissomeevidencet ats eexperiencedsomeparalysisandspeec impedimentsw ic ,combinedwit t epoliticalmotivationsfor erarrest,mig t avebeenenoug to 39MadeleinePelletierquotedinGordon,TheIntegralFeminist,135.40MadeleinePelletierlettertoArriaLy,14September1931,quotedinGordon,TheIntegralFeminist,174.41MadeleinePelletierlettertoArriaLy,6February1933,quotedinGordon,TheIntegralFeminist,214.42Gordon,TheIntegralFeminist,232.

23commit ertoapsyc iatricasylum.43S ediedint easylumin1939.Yet erradicallegacywouldserveasalinkbetweennineteent -centuryfeminismandt eabortionmovementoft e1970s.Forfeministsw oweremakingacaseforsuffrage,itwassaferandpoliticallyexpedienttomaket eircaseasmot ersandwives,w ileopposingbirt controlandabortion.Onlyasmallminority,likePelletierandRousselwouldembracet eradicalpositiont atwomens ouldandcould avecontrolovert eirbodies.Rousseldiscovered erbirt controlvocationass ebeganpublis inginLaFrondeandmetPaulRobin,founderoft eneo-Malt usianmovement.44T emovementreceiveditsnamefromt eEnglis clericandintellectual,T omasMalt us,w oarguedt atpopulationgrowt w enunc eckedbyfamineornaturaldisasterimpededprogress.Neo-Malt usiansbelievedt atpopulationcontrolwasnecessaryforac ieving umanperfectionandfreedom.T isincludedfemaleliberationfrombiologicalconstraintsast ekeytoabettersociety.RobindeeplyinfluencedRoussel'sfeminism,andneo-Malt usianargumentsservedasafoundationonw ic s ecouldframe erownargumentsagainstwomen'sbiologicaldestiny.Roussel'sfeminismexpresseditselfmostclearlyass etraveledt roug outFrancelecturing.In ertalks,s eoftenequatedreproductionwit umanlaborandt isisindeed ows eexperiencedmot er ood erself.In1901Rousselbecamepregnantfort esecondtime,experiencingadifficultbirt w ic almostkilled erand ernewsonsurvivedonlyfouranda alfmont s.45At irdpregnancyoccurredin1904,t oug t istimes ewenttoadoctorw o 43Ibid.,222.44Accampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit,40.45Ibid.,49.

24usedanest esiaforc ildbirt ,t ereforealleviatingt epaint atRoussel adexperiencedduringt etwopreviousbirt s.46T etopicsof erlecturesprovokeds ockandevenpoliceattention,alt oug ,s edidnotpublicallydefendabortion.HistorianElinorAccampo asidentifiedt reetacticsadoptedbyRousseltoc allengeperceptionsofwomen'sroles:emp asizingt ep ysicalrealitiesofmot er ood,c allengingt eideat atmot er oodwasnatural,andpromotingscienceast esolutiontot epainandsocialdamaget atmot er oodcaused.47S et usgavevoicetoallt ewomenw o,like erself,experiencedt ep ysicalandemotionalpainofc ildbirt andmot er ood.Hermessagealsoappealedtoworking-classwomen,ands eoftenadoptedMarxistlanguageto ercritiqueofforcedmot er ood.S eattackedt eCivilCodeforalienatingwomenfromt eirc ildrenandturningt emintot eirfat er'sproperty.48PaulRobinfoundedt e"Liguedelaregeneration umaine"onAugust30,1896fort epurposeofintroducingpropagandaont eneedforbirt controlandsexeducationast ekeytoabetterlife.T oug publiclecturesandmeetingst eassociationdrewanaudienceoffree-t inkers,socialists,workers,free-masons,andteac ers.T eirnewspaper,entitled"Régéneration"(later"Générationconsciente")wasdistributedatt eendoft esemeetingstoencouragefurt ereducationandparticipationont eideasofMalt us.Ingeneral,Robinand isdisciplespreac edt enotionofabetterlidet atwouldbecomepossiblet ankstopracticing"generationconsciente"orvoluntarymot er ood,by avingsmallerfamilies.T eyencouraged usbandsandwivesto avefewerc ildrent roug self-restraint.W ilet eir 46Ibid.,88.47Ibid.,61.48Accampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit,105.

25ideasprogressedamongcertainelite,andwit supportfromwell-knownanarc ists,suc asSébastianFaure,t eirmovementflounderedduetot egovernment'srepression.Severalleadersoft emovementwerebroug ttotrialont equestionofmorality.49Fromt e1880sandintot e1900st epersecutionofneo-Malt usiansintensified.Legislatorsbeganbyusingmoraldecencylawsandexpandingt edefinitionofobscenityandpornograp y.In1909EugèneHumbertandLiardCourtoiswerec argedandconvictedofdistributingindecentleafletst atexplainedcondoms,sponges,andot ermet odsofbirt control.50T roug outt eseeventsRoussel'sconvictionsdidnotwaver,but er ealt begantodeteriorateuntils ecouldnolongerlecture.S epassedawayin1922fromcomplicationscausedbyintestinalfailure.51T eideat atmot er oodandfemalesexualitywerefeministissueswasdecidedlyrejectedbymainstreamFrenc feminists,makingMadeleinePelletierandNellyRousselquiteextraordinaryfort eirtime.T eynotonlyc allengedareligiousandsocialunderstandingofwomenandmot er oodbutalsoriskedlegalpersecutionfort eiradvocacyofcontraceptionandabortion.T eextremepronatalistenvironmentcausedinlargepartbyt e uge umanlossesint egreatwar,leadtostrictlawsregulatingfemalereproduction.T oug notallbirt controlmet odscouldberealisticallyregulated,in1920Frenc lawwouldseverelylimitedawoman'sabilitytocontrol erownbodyandmot er ood.DEPOPULATION 49FrancisRonsin,Lagrèvedesventres,Propagandenéo-malthusienneetbaissedelanatalitéenFrance19e-20esiècles(Paris,AubierMontaigne,1980).50Accampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit,147-148.51Ibd.,233.

26T esocialandpoliticalsettinginw ic abortionandcontraceptionbecameillegalin1920beganwit t eperceivedproblemofdepopulation.Aswe aveseen,Frenc coupleswerealready avingfewerc ildrenbyt ebeginningoft enineteent -century,makinguseofnon-medicalmet odsofbirt controltolimitfamilysize.Suc practiceswereidentifiedasasignificantproblemafterFrance'sdefeatint eFranco-PrussianWar(1870-1871)andt epoliticalup eavaloft eParisCommunet atfollowed.T ecivilwaritselfinterruptedfeministpoliticalactivity,butw ilewomen'sconcernswerenotcentralduringt eCommune,womenwereactiveparticipantsandt ereweresomereformst atpositivelyimpactedt em.52Reformsincludedfreecompulsoryandseculareducation,equalparforfemaleteac ers, ospitalsweresecularizedandfemaleworkersrecruited,pensionswerevotedforwidowsandc ildrenofguardsmen.53Ont eot er and,t efailureoft eCommunebroug tt epersecutionofmanyleadingfeministsw owerearrestedanddeported.54Furt ermore,warandpoliticalup eavalledtot eterritoriallossofAlsace-Lorraineandover138,000deadorwounded.Asaresult,t efocusonfertilityandpopulationdeclineintensified.Womenwereonceagainatt ecenterofnationalscrutinyanddebate,andsubjecttostateregulation.Int isframework,populationsizebecamedirectlylinkedtonationalstrengt andt erealitywast atw ilet eGermanpopulationwasgrowing,t eFrenc populationwasmerelystagnant.In1789,t eFrenc populationwas27.5million,largert anBritainandGermany.55From1850to1910t eFrenc populationgrewfrom35.7to39.1millionw ileGermanygrew 52ClaireGoldbergMoses,FrenchFeminismintheNineteenth-Century(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPres,1984),192-193.53Ibid.54Ibid.,193.55ElinorA.Accampo,"T eGenderedNatureofContraceptioninFrance:Neo-Malt usianism,1900-1920,"TheJournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory34,no.2(2003):235.

27from33.4to58.4million.56T efearwast atGermanbabieswouldbecomesoldierst atcouldoverpowerFrancet roug numbersalone.Observersatt etimeasKarenOffendescribesit"denouncedFrenc womenassocially,andevenpatriotically,irresponsibleforneglectingt eirinfantsandforavoidingpregnancy."57Agreatalarmandoutcryarosein1896w enitbecameknownt atint epreviousyeart enumberofdeat swasgreatert ant enumberofbirt s.58Fromconservativest ereemergedananti-feminismt atblamed"outsiders"(Jews,Protestants,andfreemasons)fort eperceiveddeteriorationofFrenc society.59T eAllianceNationalepourl'AccroissementdelaPopulationFrançaise,foundedin1896bystatisticianJacquesBertillon,w o eldt atitwaswomen'sdutyto elpraiset enumberofbirt s,event oug Bertillonultimatelyblamedmenfort efallingbirt rates,believingt atwomen adlittlecontrolovert ematter.60Bycontrast,t esocialistsproposedanincreaseingovernmentaidtomot ers,w ileneo-Malt usiansproposedpromotingbirt control"asaweaponagainstt estate."61Ifwomen adfewerc ildrent eybelieveditwouldweakent egovernment'sabilitytowagefuturewars.W ilerepublicanpoliticiansdidsupportreformsforwomenint eareasofmarriage,divorce,earnings,andeducation,t eyalsobelievedt atwomen'sprimaryfunctioninsocietywasdirectlytiedtomot er ood.Asaresult,t roug outt eT irdRepublic,feministsmadet eircaseforreformsandusuallyavoidedt eissuesofcontraceptionandabortion.Wit t e 56KarenOffen,"Depopulation,Nationalism,andFeminisminFin-de-SiècleFrance,"TheAmericanHistoricalReview89,no.3(1984):652.57Ibid.,65158Offen,"Depopulation,Nationalism,andFeminisminFin-de-SiècleFrance,"658.In1865t erewere834,000birt sand852,000deat s.59Ibid.,663.60Ibid.,659-660.61Ibid.,659.

28exceptionofafewradicalactivistssuc asMadeleinePelletierandNellyRoussel,feministsframedt eirargumentforenfranc isementandreformbyemp asizingwomen'srolesaswivesandmot ers.W ilewardisruptedtraditionalgenderrolesbysendingmentot efrontandleavingwomenbe indtotakeupworkinfactoriesandfieldsnormallyreservedformen,t oseroleswerenotcompletelydestroyed.Infact,int ecaseofFrance, istorianSusanGraysel ass ownt atduringWorldWarIwomen'sidentitiescontinuedtocenteronmot er ood.62T erewasclearlyacontinuityin owcommentators,politicians,socialreformers,novelists,andwoment emselvesarticulatedt eirpositionsduringt istimeofcrisis.Mot er oodcontinuedtobet elenst roug w ic womenwereevaluatedduringWWI.Indeed,t eobsessionwit depopulationandmot er oodintensifiedonceagainaftert eGreatWar."Contraception,""abortion,""depopulation,"and"natality"weregivennewmeaningsbyt eenormouswarlosses.63Francesufferedt e ig estcasualtiesinproportiontot epopulation,ofanynation,wit anaverageof930killedeverydaybetweenAugust1914andNovember1918.T isdemograp icrealitywasdirectlytiedtofearsoffemalesexualityandmasculinedecline.Forpro-natalists,maternitywast emeansbyw ic malevirilityandmoralvirtuecouldberestored.64Mot er ood,wasviewedasanessentialelementinpost-warpro-natalisteffortstorevitalizeFranceandleadittowardsrenewalandredemption.Pronatalists,"attributeddepopulationto'egoism,'orexcessiveindividualism,andt edegradationof 62SusanR.Graysel,Women'sIdentititesatWar:Gender,Motherhood,andPoliticsinBritainandFranceDuringtheFirstWorldWar(C apelHill:T eUniversityofNort Carolina,1999).63 Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization Without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France 1917-1920 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), 96. 64Ibid.,131.

29paternalaut orityinFrenc law."65Ifpopulationequalednationalstrengt ,t ent epopulationcrisiscouldbeseenasamatteroflifeanddeat int econfrontationwit Germandemograp icstrengt .Itwasint iscontextt at,contraceptionandabortionbecamecentralissues.Legislatorsdeeplyinfluencedbyt edepopulationdiscourseusedittojustifyt estrictregulationofwomen'sbodiesint elawof1920.THELAWOF1920Forfeminist,t elawof1920wasasignificantincursionintot eprivatelivesofindividualsandarepressiveregulationofwomen'sbodies.Butpronatalistideologywasnowsostrongint eFrenc legislaturet att elawwasdiscussedandpassedinonly24 ours.66Onlyonesocialistsenatoropposedanimmediatevoteont eproposaland ewasquicklysilenced.67T elaw,w ic remainedont ebooksforoverfiftyyearsandrepresentedt emostrepressiveregulationofwomensincet eCivilCode,wasdebatedforameret ree ours.68Itseffectswerefeltimmediately.T elawpro ibitedt esaleofalmostallbirt controldevicesandt edistributionofallpropagandapromotingcontraceptionandabortion.Significantly,itdidnotpro ibitcondoms,w ic wereintegraltopreventingvenerealdiseases.Penaltiesfort edistributionofanyot ercontraceptivedevicesrangedfromonetosixmont sinprisonandafineof100to5,000francs.T ecriminalizationofabortion,alreadyassuredbyarticle317oft eCivilCodewasreinforced.Foranypropagandainfavorofabortion,penaltiesrangedfromsixmont stot reeyearsinprisonandafineof100to3000francs. 65Ibid.,96.66Mouvementfrançaispourleplanningfamilial,Liberté,sexualités,feminism:50ansdecombatduPlanningpourlesdroitsdesfemmes(Paris:LaDécouverte,2006),15.67Ibid.68Ibid.

30Amongallt emajornewspapersonlyL'Humanitéreportedont elaw,devotingameretwentylinestoit.Yet,t elawwasoneoft emostsignificantvictoriesforpronatalists.Neo-Malt usians adtoceasemostoft eirpublicationsand adtobeextremelycarefulwit t ewordingoft eirpublicspeec es.Several,includingwriterandactivistJeanneHumbertwerequicklyarrested,tried,andconvictedinacivilcourt.69Publicopinionseemedgenerallyto avefavoredt elawandt epronatalistdiscourset atledtoitspassage,w ileopponentsandfeministssuc asMadeleinePelletierandNellyRousselwerealmostcertainlyint eminority.Wit t elawof1920,legislatorssuccessfullyassertedt eircontroloverwomen'sbodies.Dr.PaulStrauss,senatorfromt eSeineandmemberoft eGauc eDémocratiquedeclared:"Itisoutdutyandwit inourpowertodryupatitssourcet emajorcauseofabortionsandcrimesagainstc ild ood."70T isstrongdeclarationofpaternalaut orityrejectedawoman'srig ttomakedecisionsinmattersofsexandreproduction.Suc r etoric adawideappeal,asitcontrastedt ewomanw os owednointerestingivinglife,tot efallensoldierw o adgiven islifefort enation.SenatorLéonJénouvrierarticulatedt estrongemotionsofmanymenduringt ereadingoft elaw:"t iscountryt ataftert esufferingandsacrificesofoursoldiersatt efront-indeed,t eydidnottryto'livet eirownlife,'butinsteadoffereditupforFrance'ssalvation-itisuptot epeopleont e omefronttocreatelife."71Legislatorsbelievedt atabortionandcontraceptionposedamajort reattoFranceandneededtobepro ibited. 69Accampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit,220.70QuotedinRoberts,CivilizationWithoutSexes,13371QuotedinIbid.,120.

31T elawwasefficientw enitcametosilencingbirt controlpropaganda,butlessefficientinassuringt epunis mentofabortions.W enfacedwit individualstoriedjuriestendedtobesympat etictowomenandoptedforlig terpunis mentsandacquittals.Troubledbyt enumberofacquittalsinabortioncases,anamendmentwasaddedtot elawin1923t attooksuc casesoutoft e andsofjuriesandgavefullaut oritytojudgesw ocouldinflictt emaximumpunis ment.72Inordertoaccomplis edt is, owever,legislators adtotransformt ecrimeofabortionfromafelonytoamisdemeanor.Butsuc atransformationinitselftroubledmanylegislators.Onedeclared:"L'avortement,lac oselaplusabominablequiexiste,cemeurtreindividuel,cecrimenational,vousallezlefairepasser,auxyeuxdespopulations,pourundélit!"73Butt emajorityoflegislatorsweremoreconcernedwit insuringt epunis mentofabortionandvotedfort ec ange.Yetif,t eabortiondebateofficiallyseamedtobeclosed,Frenc womenwouldcontinuetofeelcompelledtolimitfamilysizet roug bot birt controlandabortion.THEVICHYPERIODT e1920sand30srepresentedaperiodinw ic sexandreproductionswereintertwined.Pronatatlispoliciesreaffirmedt edominanceofseparatesp eresanddomesticmot er ood.WomenwereimportanttoFrenc societyint eirroleasmot ersandt eirabilitytorenewFrenc society.Tolegislatorsandreformersmot er oodwould ealwarwounds,repopulatet ecountry,andrestoremalevirility.Pronatalistideologywasreaffirmedint e 72Accampo,BlessedMotherhood,BitterFruit,16.73QuotedinJean-YvesleNaourtandCat erineValenti,Histoiredel'avortementXIXe-XXesiècle(Paris:ÉditionsduSeul,2003),163.

321930st roug familywelfarebenefits.T es ortageoffoodandt e ig costoflivingmadeitstateaidnecessarytokeepwomenat omeandoutoft eworkplace.Cat olicorganizationsandpronatalistalikeurgedt egovernmentforamaternalwageorspecialallocationforstayat omemot ers.74T esemeasurewerefinallypassedonNovember1938undert eleftistNatioanlFrontgovernmentbutasfamilywelfareprogramsrat ert anawageorspecialallocation.75Policiescriminalizingabortionandcontraceptionremainedconstantuntilt enextdecade,duringw ic war-timeandoccupationmadeintensifiedrepression.Asrepressiveast e1920lawwas,evenmorestringentanti-abortionlegislationwaspassedinFebruary1942duringWWIIundert eVic yregime.Accordingtot e"300law,"abortionwast eequivalentoftreasonanditwasdeclaredtobeacapitaloffence.Soimportantwast eprosecutionoft is"crime"t att atevenaftert eAlliedlandingsinNormandy,t eregimecontinuedaggressivelypursuingabortionists,evenguillotiningtwoawomanandaman.Accordingto istorianMirandaPollard,"T e300Law,undert eguiseof'nationalinterest,'gavet eStatet eabilitytointerveneint eprivatelivesofwomen---w ereGermansoldierswerepresent,w ereFrenc womenwereconspicuouslytransgressing'national'codesofsexualpropriety,w eret e onorofFrenc prisonersmig tbeup eld."76Sow ilewardisruptedgenderrolesandopenednewspacesforwomen'srolesoutsidet e ome,itcouldalsobringreactionaryrepression.T eultraconservativecollaborationistVic yregimesoug ttoenforcegenderrolest roug w atevermeanspossible,includingprosecutingabortionisttot efullrigoroft elaw. 74HelenHardenC enut,TheFabricofGender:WorkingClassCultureinThirdRepublicFrance(UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,2006),154.75Ibid.76MirandaPollard,ReignofVirtue:MobilizingGenderinVichyFrance(C icago:UniversityofC icagoPress,1998),194.

33OnJuly30,1943,t irty-nineyearoldMarie-LouiseGiraudwasguillotinedinParis;andt reemont slatert esamefatebefellDesiréP.77T eguillotinewasdeemedappropriateforbot sincet ey adperformedmultipleabortions.MadameGuillardwasdenouncedby er usbandafter avingcommittedtwenty-sevenabortions.Infact,t etribunaldidnotevenfocusont eabortionst emselves,butinsteademp asizedt eimmoralityof erlifestyle."S ewasadomestic'monster,'an'unnatural'woman,disconcertinglycynical,publicallyflaunting erdisregardfor er usband,t elaw,socialconvention,andpropriety."78T ecasewasprofoundlyrevealingofVic y'sanxieties.Foraregimet atplacedamajoremp asison"workandfamily"MadameGuillardwasguiltyofaprofoundmoraltransgressiont atplacedt everynotionatrisk.However,wit t eliberationof1944,t eVic yregimecametoanendandt esubsequentrebuildingoft enationcreatedspacesinw ic womenwouldc allenget elawof1920.THEPOST-WARBIRTHCONTROLMOVEMENTANDDOCTORPIERRESIMONEInt e1950sand60st erewasstillacontinuityint ewayagreatmanyunderstoodwomen'srolesinsocietyandt eiremp asisonwomen'spositionasmot ersandguardiansoft e ouse old.T ereactionstosuc assumptionsledtoabirt controlmomentt atinitiallyemp asizedmot er oodasac oice,rat ert anfocusingont esexualliberationofwomen'sbodies.Itwasint isguiset atfeministgroupsoft e1960sweresuccessfulinendingt epro ibitionofbirt controlandbirt controlpropaganda,severelyweakeningt elawof1920andopeningt edoortot elegalizationofabortion. 77Ibid.,179.78Ibid.,181.

34T eorganizationMaternitéHeureuse,foundedbyMarie-AndréeLagrouaWeil-Hallé,wasfundamentalinfig tingforaccesstocontraception.T eassociationwasfoundedin1956and"sefixeuntripleobjectif:luttercontrelesavortementsclandestins,assurerl'équilibrepsyc ologiqueducoupleetaméliorerlasantédesmèresetdesenfants."79From1956to1960contraceptionadvocacywasnotexclusivelyanissueofwomen'srig tsbutonet atalsostressedfamilyplanning.Officially,atleast,MaternitéHeureusepromotedapositivevisionofmot er ood.W ilelaterfeministswouldarguet atmot er oodwasanoppressivestateimposedonwomen,t eearlycontraceptivemovementoft e1950sportrayeditasapositiveexperiencet atwit t euseofcontraceptives,couldbecontrolledbybot membersoft ecouple.T egoalwastoincreaset enumberofwantedc ildrenin appy omesandpreventunwantedc ildrennottoendpregnancies.Att etime,t iswasaradicalposition.T e1920law adnotonlymadecontraceptionillegalbutalsopro ibitedt edisseminationofcontraceptiveinformation.T ereforet eorganization'scommitmenttomakingcontraceptiveinformationwidelyavailabletocouplesdirectlyc allengedt epronatalistregime.T egeneralapproac oft eorganizationc anged, owever,in1960w enMaternitéHeureusewasconvertedintoLeMouvementFrançaisPourlePlanningFamilial(MFPF).T isc angecanbeseenint eorganization'spublis edjournal.Articlesnowbegandiscussingwomenasindividuals,t eirrig tsasindividuals,andt euseofcontraceptionasaparticularlyfeminineconcern.T us,oneearlycriticarguedt at"refuseràlafemmelapropremaîtrisedesonrôlesexuelenluiinterdisantlebirt controlaunomdumyt edelaMaîtressedesoirevientàlamaintenirsousladépendancesexuelledel' omme,quecesoitavantoupendantle 79MouvementFrançaisPourlePlanningFamilial,Liberté,Sexualités,Féminisme:50ansdecombatduPlanningPourlesdroitsdesFemmes(Paris:LaDécouverte,2006),24.

35mariage."80T eorganizationac ievedamajorvictoryin1967wit t eNeuwirt law,w ic formallylegalizedcontraception.T islawmarkedamoredramaticbreakingpointint eorganizationandt ebirt controlmovementingeneral.Indeed,wit t elegalizationofcontraceptioninFrance,presidentLagrouaWeill-Hallénolongersawt eneedforsuc anorganizationandresigned.Accordingto er,"cen'estpasdemilitantsdontlacontraceptionabesoin,maisdebonstec nicians."81Butmilitantsdisagreed.T eysawt eNeuwirt lawasflawed,t atitdidnotgofarenoug inaddressingt eneedsofwomen,andt atconsequentlyt eirstrugglemustcontinue.Evenamongt osew owantedtopursuet estruggle, owever,anumberofdivisionsarose.Amoreradicalgroupcriticizedt euseofmalemedicaldoctorswit int e ierarc yoft eorganizationinordertoattainmainstreampublicattention.82T eybelievedt atitwaswomenalonew os ould oldallleaders ippositions.Somealsobelievedmoregenerallyt atwomens ouldnotsurrenderallpowertomaledoctors.T ispositionwasadoptedbyt eMouvementdeLibérationdesFemmes(MLF).T eMLFwasc aracterizedbyt epromotionofeventsdesignedtos ockt eFrenc public.T us,itfirstac ievednotorietyinAugust1970w enagroupofitsmembersplacedawreat ont eTomboft eUnknownSoldierdedicatedto iswife.83Italsodramaticallydeclared"LaLibérationdesfemmes,annéezero"onNovember1970.Att eendoft e1970syetanot ergroup,PsychanalyseetPolitique(PsychetPo) 80AndréMic el,"LePersonne,laFemmeetleMyt e,"MouvementFrançaisPourlePlanningFamilial,no.12(Marc 1960),7.81Mic el,"LePersonne,laFemmeetleMyt e,"63.82C ristineBardandJanineMossuz-Lavaueds.,LePlanningFamillial:HistoireetMémoire(1956-2006),(Rennes:PressesUniversitairesdeRennes,2006),30.83Duc en,FeminisminFrance,9.

36registeredcameintoexistence,dominatedbywomenw obelievedt att efeministstruggleneededtobewagedentirelywit outmen.W ilefeministnetworkswerebeingbuilt,doctorst emselvescouldrelyonalreadyexistingmedicalnetworksforcontraceptionandabortioninformationandtec nology.Int isrespectDr.PierreSimonwouldserveasaparticularlyvaluableresourcebot asamedicalaut orityanddedicatedallytot elegalizationofmedicalcontraceptionandabortion.Bornin1935inMetz,Simonwasarespectedgynecologistandactivistw odedicated imselftot eissuesofcontraception,abortion,andeut anasia.In1953 etravelledtot eSovietUniontostudynewtec niquesforpainlessc ildbirt .84Heisalsocreditedwit inventingt etermstérilet,knowninEnglis ast eintra-uterinedeviceorIUD.85In1956 e adworkedcloselywit Marie-AndréeWeill-HalléinfoundingMaternitéHeureuse/MouvementFrançaisPourlePlanningFamilial(MFPF/Planningfamilial).Hewasalsooneoft eaut orsoft eRapportsurlecomportementsexueldesfrançais,w ic waspublis edin1972andcanbeseenast eFrenc equivalentoft eAmericanKinseyreport.Hiscorrespondenceandcollectionofarticlesinmedicaljournalsandnewspapersprovideawealt ofinformationaboutt einternationalnetworksavailableto imin isroleasbot adoctorandapoliticalactivist.Hisworkcanbeviewedast eembodimentoft eradicalspiritoft elatetwentiet centuryinw ic womenandmenfoug ttoget erforrapidsocioeconomicc ange.Simon eldt eprivilegeofbeingadoctor,w ic gave imaccesstoresearc ersworkingonnewcontraceptiveandabortiontec nologies.Hiscorrespondenceandfilesreveal ow etappedintomedicalknowledgeby 84BibiaPavard,Sijeveux,quandquotesdbs_dbs13.pdfusesText_19