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The Linux Command Line

Fifth Internet Edition

William Shotts

A LinuxCommand.org Book

Copyright ©2008-2019, William E. Shotts, Jr.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No De- rivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit the link above or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042. A version of this book is also available in printed form, published by No Starch Press. Copies may be purchased wherever fine books are sold. No Starch Press also offers elec- tronic formats for popular e-readers. They can be reached at: https://www.nostarch.com. Linux® is the registered trademark of Linus Torvalds. All other trademarks belong to their respective owners. This book is part of the LinuxCommand.org project, a site for Linux education and advo- cacy devoted to helping users of legacy operating systems migrate into the future. You may contact the LinuxCommand.org project at http://linuxcommand.org.

Release History

VersionDateDescription

19.01AJanuary 28, 2019Fifth Internet Edition (Corrected TOC)

19.01January 17, 2019Fifth Internet Edition.

17.10October 19, 2017Fourth Internet Edition.

16.07July 28, 2016Third Internet Edition.

13.07July 6, 2013Second Internet Edition.

09.12December 14, 2009First Internet Edition.

Table of Contents

Why Use the Command Line?......................................................................................xvi

What This Book Is About..............................................................................................xvii

Who Should Read This Book.......................................................................................xvii

What's in This Book.....................................................................................................xviii

How To Read This Book................................................................................................xix

Why I Don't Call It "GNU/Linux"...........................................................................xix

What's New in the Fifth Internet Edition.........................................................................xx

First Internet Edition..................................................................................................xx

Second Internet Edition............................................................................................xxi

Third Internet Edition................................................................................................xxi

Fourth Internet Edition..............................................................................................xxi

Fifth Internet Edition.................................................................................................xxi

Your Feedback Is Needed!............................................................................................xxi

Further Reading............................................................................................................xxi

Part 1 - Learning the Shell...............................................................1

1 - What Is the Shell?......................................................................................2

Terminal Emulators..........................................................................................................2

Making Your First Keystrokes..........................................................................................2

Command History.......................................................................................................3

Cursor Movement.......................................................................................................3

A Few Words About Mice and Focus.....................................................................3

Try Some Simple Commands..........................................................................................4

Ending a Terminal Session..............................................................................................5

The Console Behind the Curtain...........................................................................5

Summing Up....................................................................................................................5

Further Reading...............................................................................................................6

2 - Navigation...................................................................................................7

Understanding the File System Tree...............................................................................7

The Current Working Directory........................................................................................7

Listing the Contents of a Directory..................................................................................8

i

Changing the Current Working Directory........................................................................9

Absolute Pathnames..................................................................................................9

Relative Pathnames...................................................................................................9

Some Helpful Shortcuts............................................................................................11

Important Facts About Filenames........................................................................11

Summing Up..................................................................................................................12

3 - Exploring the System..............................................................................13

Having More Fun with ls................................................................................................13

Options and Arguments............................................................................................14

A Longer Look at Long Format.................................................................................16

Determining a File's Type with file.................................................................................17

Viewing File Contents with less.....................................................................................17

What Is "Text"?.....................................................................................................17

Less Is More........................................................................................................19

Taking a Guided Tour.....................................................................................................19

Symbolic Links...............................................................................................................23

Hard Links.....................................................................................................................24

Summing Up..................................................................................................................24

Further Reading.............................................................................................................24

4 - Manipulating Files and Directories........................................................25

Character Ranges................................................................................................27

Wildcards Work in the GUI Too............................................................................27

mkdir - Create Directories.............................................................................................28

cp - Copy Files and Directories....................................................................................28

Useful Options and Examples..................................................................................29

mv - Move and Rename Files.......................................................................................30

Useful Options and Examples..................................................................................30

rm - Remove Files and Directories...............................................................................31

Useful Options and Examples..................................................................................32

Be Careful with rm!..............................................................................................33

ln - Create Links............................................................................................................33

Hard Links................................................................................................................33

Symbolic Links..........................................................................................................34

Let's Build a Playground................................................................................................34

Creating Directories..................................................................................................34

Copying Files............................................................................................................35

Moving and Renaming Files.....................................................................................36

Creating Hard Links..................................................................................................37

Creating Symbolic Links...........................................................................................38

Removing Files and Directories...............................................................................39

Creating Symlinks With The GUI.........................................................................41

Summing Up..................................................................................................................41

Further Reading.............................................................................................................41

5 - Working with Commands........................................................................42

What Exactly Are Commands?......................................................................................42

Identifying Commands...................................................................................................43

ii

type - Display a Command's Type...........................................................................43

which - Display an Executable's Location...............................................................43

Getting a Command's Documentation..........................................................................44

help - Get Help for Shell Builtins..............................................................................44

--help - Display Usage Information..........................................................................45

man - Display a Program's Manual Page................................................................46

apropos - Display Appropriate Commands..............................................................47

whatis - Display One-line Manual Page Descriptions..............................................48 The Most Brutal Man Page Of Them All..............................................................48

info - Display a Program's Info Entry.......................................................................48

README and Other Program Documentation Files................................................50

Creating Our Own Commands with alias......................................................................50

Summing Up..................................................................................................................52

Further Reading.............................................................................................................52

6 - Redirection................................................................................................54

Standard Input, Output, and Error.................................................................................54

Redirecting Standard Output.........................................................................................55

Redirecting Standard Error............................................................................................57

Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error to One File.................................57

Disposing of Unwanted Output.................................................................................58

/dev/null In Unix Culture......................................................................................58

Redirecting Standard Input............................................................................................58

cat - Concatenate Files............................................................................................59

The Difference Between > and |..........................................................................61

uniq - Report or Omit Repeated Lines......................................................................62

wc - Print Line, Word, and Byte Counts...................................................................63

grep - Print Lines Matching a Pattern......................................................................63

head / tail - Print First / Last Part of Files................................................................64

tee - Read from Stdin and Output to Stdout and Files............................................65

Summing Up..................................................................................................................66

Linux Is About Imagination..................................................................................66

7 - Seeing the World as the Shell Sees It....................................................68

Pathname Expansion...............................................................................................69

Pathname Expansion of Hidden Files.................................................................70

Tilde Expansion........................................................................................................70

Arithmetic Expansion................................................................................................71

Brace Expansion......................................................................................................72

Parameter Expansion...............................................................................................73

Command Substitution.............................................................................................74

Double Quotes..........................................................................................................76

Single Quotes...........................................................................................................78

Escaping Characters................................................................................................78

Backslash Escape Sequences............................................................................79

Summing Up..................................................................................................................79

iii

Further Reading.............................................................................................................80

8 - Advanced Keyboard Tricks.....................................................................81

Command Line Editing..................................................................................................81

Cursor Movement.....................................................................................................81

Modifying Text...........................................................................................................82

Cutting and Pasting (Killing and Yanking) Text.........................................................82

The Meta Key......................................................................................................83

Programmable Completion..................................................................................85

Using History.................................................................................................................85

Searching History.....................................................................................................86

History Expansion.....................................................................................................88

Summing Up..................................................................................................................89

Further Reading.............................................................................................................89

9 - Permissions..............................................................................................90

Owners, Group Members, and Everybody Else............................................................91

Reading, Writing, and Executing...................................................................................92

chmod - Change File Mode.....................................................................................94

What the Heck is Octal?......................................................................................95

Setting File Mode with the GUI.................................................................................98

umask - Set Default Permissions............................................................................98

Some Special Permissions................................................................................100

Changing Identities......................................................................................................101

su - Run a Shell with Substitute User and Group IDs...........................................102 sudo - Execute a Command as Another User.......................................................103

Ubuntu and sudo...............................................................................................104

chown - Change File Owner and Group................................................................104

chgrp - Change Group Ownership.........................................................................106

Exercising Our Privileges............................................................................................106

Changing Your Password............................................................................................108

Summing Up................................................................................................................109

Further Reading..........................................................................................................109

10 - Processes..............................................................................................110

How a Process Works.................................................................................................110

Viewing Processes.......................................................................................................111

Viewing Processes Dynamically with top................................................................113

Controlling Processes..................................................................................................116

Interrupting a Process.............................................................................................116

Putting a Process in the Background.....................................................................117

Returning a Process to the Foreground.................................................................118

Stopping (Pausing) a Process................................................................................118

Sending Signals to Processes with kill...................................................................120

Sending Signals to Multiple Processes with killall..................................................122

Shutting Down the System..........................................................................................123

More Process-Related Commands.............................................................................124

iv

Summing Up................................................................................................................124

Part 2 - Configuration and the Environment..............................127

11 - The Environment..................................................................................128

What is Stored in the Environment?............................................................................128

Examining The Environment..................................................................................128

Some Interesting Variables.....................................................................................130

How Is The Environment Established?.......................................................................131

What's in a Startup File?........................................................................................132

Modifying the Environment..........................................................................................134

Which Files Should We Modify?.............................................................................135

Text Editors.............................................................................................................135

Using a Text Editor.................................................................................................136

Why Comments Are Important..........................................................................139

Activating Our Changes..........................................................................................140

Summing Up................................................................................................................140

Further Reading..........................................................................................................140

12 - A Gentle Introduction to vi..................................................................141

Why We Should Learn vi.............................................................................................141

A Little Background.....................................................................................................142

Starting and Stopping vi..............................................................................................142

Compatibility Mode............................................................................................143

Editing Modes..............................................................................................................144

Entering Insert Mode..............................................................................................145

Saving Our Work....................................................................................................145

Moving the Cursor Around...........................................................................................146

Basic Editing................................................................................................................147

Appending Text.......................................................................................................147

Opening a Line.......................................................................................................148

Deleting Text...........................................................................................................149

Cutting, Copying, and Pasting Text........................................................................150

Joining Lines...........................................................................................................152

Searching Within a Line..........................................................................................152

Searching the Entire File........................................................................................152

Global Search-and-Replace...................................................................................153

Editing Multiple Files...................................................................................................155

Switching Between Files.........................................................................................156

Opening Additional Files for Editing.......................................................................157

Copying Content from One File into Another..........................................................157

Inserting an Entire File into Another.......................................................................158

Saving Our Work.........................................................................................................159

Summing Up................................................................................................................160

Further Reading..........................................................................................................160

13 - Customizing the Prompt......................................................................162

Anatomy of a Prompt...................................................................................................162

v

Trying Some Alternative Prompt Designs....................................................................164

Adding Color................................................................................................................165

Terminal Confusion............................................................................................165

Moving the Cursor.......................................................................................................168

Saving the Prompt.......................................................................................................169

Summing Up................................................................................................................169

Further Reading..........................................................................................................170

Part 3 - Common Tasks and Essential Tools.............................171

14 - Package Management..........................................................................172

Packaging Systems.....................................................................................................172

How a Package System Works...................................................................................173

Package Files.........................................................................................................173

High and Low-level Package Tools........................................................................174

Common Package Management Tasks.......................................................................175

Finding a Package in a Repository.........................................................................175

Installing a Package from a Repository..................................................................175

Installing a Package from a Package File..............................................................176

Removing a Package.............................................................................................176

Updating Packages from a Repository...................................................................177

Upgrading a Package from a Package File............................................................177

Listing Installed Packages......................................................................................178

Determining Whether a Package is Installed.........................................................178

Displaying Information About an Installed Package...............................................179

Finding Which Package Installed a File.................................................................179

Summing Up................................................................................................................180

The Linux Software Installation Myth.................................................................180

Further Reading..........................................................................................................181

15 - Storage Media.......................................................................................182

Mounting and Unmounting Storage Devices...............................................................182

Viewing a List of Mounted File Systems.................................................................184

Why Unmounting Is Important...........................................................................187

Determining Device Names....................................................................................188

Creating New File Systems.........................................................................................191

Manipulating Partitions with fdisk...........................................................................192

Creating a New File System with mkfs...................................................................194

Testing and Repairing File Systems............................................................................195

What the fsck?...................................................................................................196

Moving Data Directly to and from Devices..................................................................196

Creating CD-ROM Images..........................................................................................197

Creating an Image Copy of a CD-ROM..................................................................197

Creating an Image From a Collection of Files........................................................197

A Program by Any Other Name.........................................................................198

Writing CD-ROM Images.............................................................................................198

Mounting an ISO Image Directly............................................................................198

vi

Blanking a Rewritable CD-ROM.............................................................................199

Writing an Image....................................................................................................199

Summing Up................................................................................................................199

Further Reading..........................................................................................................199

Extra Credit..................................................................................................................199

16 - Networking............................................................................................201

Examining and Monitoring a Network.........................................................................202

Transporting Files Over a Network..............................................................................206

lftp - A Better ftp.....................................................................................................209

Secure Communication with Remote Hosts................................................................209

Tunneling with SSH...........................................................................................213

scp and sftp............................................................................................................214

An SSH Client for Windows?.............................................................................215

Summing Up................................................................................................................215

Further Reading..........................................................................................................215

17 - Searching for Files...............................................................................217

locate - Find Files the Easy Way................................................................................217

Where Does the locate Database Come From?...............................................219

find - Find Files the Hard Way....................................................................................219

Predefined Actions..................................................................................................225

User-Defined Actions..............................................................................................227

Improving Efficiency...............................................................................................228

Dealing with Funny Filenames..........................................................................229

A Return to the Playground....................................................................................229

Summing Up................................................................................................................233

Further Reading..........................................................................................................233

18 - Archiving and Backup.........................................................................234

Compressing Files.......................................................................................................234

Don't Be Compressive Compulsive...................................................................238

Archiving Files.............................................................................................................238

Synchronizing Files and Directories............................................................................246

Using rsync Over a Network...................................................................................249

vii

Summing Up................................................................................................................250

Further Reading..........................................................................................................250

19 - Regular Expressions...........................................................................251

What are Regular Expressions?.............................................................................251

Metacharacters and Literals........................................................................................253

The Any Character......................................................................................................254

A Crossword Puzzle Helper...............................................................................256

Bracket Expressions and Character Classes..............................................................256

Traditional Character Ranges.................................................................................257

POSIX Character Classes......................................................................................258

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