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REPORTS AND STUDIESREPORTS AND STUDIES

SOURCES, FATE AND EFFECTS OF

MICROPLASTICS IN THE

MARINE ENVIRONMENT:

PART 2 OF A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT

Science for Sustainable Oceans

ISSN 1020-4873

REPORTS AND STUDIES

93

SOURCES, FATE AND EFFECTS OF

MICROPLASTICS IN THE MARINE

ENVIRONMENT: PART TWO OF

A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT

A report to inform the Second United Nations Environment Assembly

GESAMP Working Group 40

2nd phase

Published by the

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION

4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SR

www.imo.org

Printed by Micropress Printers Ltd.

ISSN: 1020-4873

Cover photo: Peter Kershaw

Notes:

GESAMP is an advisory body consisting of specialized experts nominated by the Sponsoring Agencies

(IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, UNIDO, WMO, IAEA, UN, UNEP, UNDP). Its principal task is to provide scientific

advice concerning the prevention, reduction and control of the degradation of the marine environment to the

Sponsoring Agencies.

The report contains views expressed or endorsed by members of GESAMP who act in their individual capacities; their views may not necessarily correspond with those of the Sponsoring Agencies. Permission may be granted by any of the Sponsoring Agencies for the report to be wholly or partially

reproduced in publication by any individual who is not a staff member of a Sponsoring Agency of GESAMP,

provided that the source of the extract and the condition mentioned above are indicated. Information about GESAMP and its reports and studies can be found at: http://gesamp.org

ISSN 1020-4873 (GESAMP Reports & Studies Series)

Copyright © IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, UNIDO, WMO, IAEA, UN, UNEP, UNDP 2015 For bibliographic purposes this document should be cited as:

GESAMP (2016). “Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: part two of a global

assessment" (Kershaw, P.J., and Rochman, C.M., eds). (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/ UNEP/UNDP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection). Rep.

Stud. GESAMP No. 93, 220 p.

Report editors: Peter J. Kershaw and Chelsea M. Rochman

Contributors to the report:

Linda Amaral-Zettler, Anthony Andrady, Sarah Dudas (Chapter 5 lead), Joan Fabres, Francois Galgani

(Chapter 7 lead), Denise Hardesty (Chapter 3 lead), Valeria Hidalgo-Ruz, Sunny Hong, Peter Kershaw, Laurent

Lebreton (Chapter 2 lead), Amy Lusher, Ramani Narayan, Sabine Pahl, James Potemra, Chelsea Rochman,

Sheck A. Sherif, Joni Seager, Won Joon Shim, Paula Sobral, Shige Takada, Patrick ten Brink (Chapter 6 lead),

Martin Thiel, Richard Thompson, Alexander Turra, Lisbeth Van Cauwenberghe, Erik van Sebille, Dick Vethaak

(Chapter 4 lead), Emma Watkins, Kayleigh Wyles, Chris Wilcox, Erik Zettler and Patrizia Ziveri. GESAMP REPORTS & STUDIES No. 93 - MICROPLASTICS IN THE OCEAN · 3

GLOSSARY

Organizations, techniques and other terms

Short formFull name

ALDFGAbandoned, Lost and otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear

FAOFood and Agriculture Organization

FT-IRFourier transform infrared spectroscopy

UNEAUnited Nations Environment Assembly

Common polymers

Short formFull nameShort formFull name

ABSAcrylonitrile butadiene styrenePGAPoly(glycolic acid)

ACAcrylicPLAPoly(lactide)

EPEpoxy resin (thermoset)PPPolypropylene

PAPolyamide 4,6, 11, 66PSPolystyrene

PCLPolycaprolactoneEPS (PSE)Expanded polystyrene

PEPolyethylenePU (PUR)Polyurethane

PE-LDPolyethylene low densityPVAPolyvinyl alcohol

PE-LLDPolyethylene linear low densityPVCPolyvinyl chloride PE-HDPolyethylene high densityPU (PUR)Polyurethane PETPolyethylene terephthalateSBRStyrene-butadiene rubber

Common chemical additives in plastics

Short formFull nameExamples of function

BPABisphenol Aa monomer used in the manufacture of polycarbonates and epoxy resins DBPdibutyl phthalateanti-cracking agents in nail varnish DEPdiethyl phthalateskin softeners, colour and fragrance fixers

DEHPdi-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalateplasticizer in PVC

HBCDhexabromocyclododecaneflame retardant

NPnonylphenolstabilizer in food packaging and PVC

PBDEsPolybrominated diphenyl ethers

(penta, octa & deca forms)flame retardants nonylphenolstabilizer in PP, PS phthalatesPhthalate estersimprove flexibility and durability

Common organic contaminants absorbed by plastics

Short formFull nameOrigin

PAHsPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonscombustion products PCBspolychlorinated biphenylscooling and insulating fluids, e.g. in transformers GESAMP REPORTS & STUDIES No. 93 - MICROPLASTICS IN THE OCEAN · 5

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................... .. 11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

. 13

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 15

1.1 Context ....................................................................... .. 15 1.2 GESAMP WG40 work programme and timeline .......................................... 15 1.3 Structure and scope of the report ..................................................... 16

2 SOURCES OF MICROPLASTICS ...................................................... 17

2.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 17 2.2 Primary and secondary sources of microplastics ........................................ 17 2.2.1 Overview of microplastic sources ............................................. 17 2.2.2 Fragmentation and degradation .............................................. 18 2.3 Sources by sector ................................................................. 20 2.3.1 Sources in brief ........................................................... 20 2.3.2 Producers and converters ................................................... 20 2.3.3 Land-based sectoral consumers .............................................. 21 2.3.4 Sea-based sectoral consumers ............................................... 22 2.3.5 Individual consumers ....................................................... 25 2.3.6 Waste management ........................................................ 25 2.4 Entry points to the ocean ........................................................... 26 2.4.1 Rivers ................................................................... 26 2.4.2 Coastline ................................................................ 30 2.4.3 Marine ................................................................... 31 2.4.4 Atmosphere .............................................................. 32 2.5 Scale variability ................................................................... 32 2.5.1 Time-scale-dependency .................................................... 32 2.5.2 Regional scale dependency .................................................. 33 2.6 Conclusions, knowledge gaps and priorities ............................................ 34 2.6.1 Conclusions .............................................................. 34 2.6.2 Knowledge gaps .......................................................... 34 2.6.3 Research priorities ......................................................... 34

3 DISTRIBUTION, FATE AND 'HOT-SPOTS' .............................................. 36

3.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 36 3.2 Microplastics in ocean compartments ................................................. 36 3.2.1 Compartments in brief ...................................................... 36 3.2.2

Microplastics on the ocean surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . 36 3.2.3 Microplastics in the water column ............................................. 37 3.2.4 Microplastics on the seafloor ................................................. 37 3.2.5 Shoreline/Coastal regions ................................................... 39 3.2.6 Biota .................................................................... 39 3.3 Transport within compartments ...................................................... 39 3.3.1 Upper ocean .............................................................. 39 3.3.2 Water column ............................................................. 40 Page

6 · GESAMP REPORTS & STUDIES No. 93 - MICROPLASTICS IN THE OCEAN

3.3.3 De ep ocean .............................................................. 40

3.3.4 C oastlines 40
3.3.5 Bio ta 41
3.4 F luxes between compartments 41
3.5

Hot-spots" and scale-dependency

42
3.6 C onclusions, knowledge gaps and research priorities 43
3.6.1 C onclusions 43
3.6.2 K nowledge gaps 43
3.6.3 R esearch priorities 43

4 ECO LOGICAL IMPACTS OF MICROPLASTICS ......................................... 44

4.1 L essons from the rst assessment 44
4.2 O ccurrence of microplastics in biota 44
4.2.1 M icroplastics in the marine environment 44
4.2.2 E xposure pathways and concentrations of microplastics in marine organisms ......... 45 4 .2.3 L aboratory studies ......................................................... 45 4 .2.4 Fi eld studies 49
4.3 I mpacts of microplastics on marine organisms 52
4.3.1 I mpacts and the level of biological organization 52
4.3.2 I mpacts demonstrated in laboratory experiments 53
4.3.3 E vidence from the eld 55
4.3.4 S

ummary of taxa included in recent research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55
4.4 I mpact of plastic-related chemicals 56
4.4.1 C oncentration of chemicals associated with microplastic in the environment 56
4.4.2 T ransfer of chemicals from microplastic to marine organisms 57
4.4.3 I mpacts of chemicals from microplastics on organisms in the laboratory 60
4.4.4 C onclusion 60
4.5 N ano-sized plastic debris 60
4.5.1 D e nitions 60
4.5.2 E vidence of nano-sized plastic debris in the environment 61
4.5.3 P otential fate and impacts of nano-sized plastic to humans and other biota 61
4.6 T ransport of non-indigenous species 62
4.6.1 P rocesses 62
4.6.2 I mpacts 63
4.7 C onclusions, knowledge gaps and priorities 64
4.7.1 C onclusions 64
4.7.2 K nowledge gaps 64

5 CO MMERCIAL FISH AND SHELLFISH ................................................. 66

5.1 L essons from the rst assessment 66
5.2 G lobal sheries and aquaculture sectors 66
5.2.1 A n introduction to seafood 66
5.2.2 C apture sheries 67
5.2.3 A quaculture 67
5.3 M icroplastic contamination and impact on sheries and aquaculture products 70
5.3.1 M icroplastics in commercial n sh 70
5.3.2 M icroplastics in shell sh and other species 72
GESAMP REPORTS & STUDIES No. 93 - MICROPLASTICS IN THE OCEAN · 7

5.4 Impacts on food security ............................................................ 74

5.4.1 Food safety and security .................................................... 74 5.4.2 Global consumption patterns ................................................ 76 5.4.3 Human health implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 5.5 Conclusions, knowledge gaps and research priorities ..................................... 78 5.5.1 Conclusions .............................................................. 78 5.5.2 Knowledge gaps .......................................................... 79 5.5.3 Research priorities ......................................................... 79

6 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS ........................................................ 80

6.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 80 6.2 Introducing the plastics economy ..................................................... 80 6.3 Producer responsibility ............................................................. 81 6.3.1 Initiatives and the cost of action to address microplastics .......................... 81 6.3.2quotesdbs_dbs46.pdfusesText_46

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