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Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales

École doctorale n°265

Langues, littératures et sociétés du monde

LLACAN UMR8135

THÈSE

présentée par

Jakob LESAGE

soutenue le 25 juin 2020 en Sciences du langage : linguistique et didactique des langues A grammar and lexicon of Kam (ăżǁࠪǰm), a Niger-Congo language of central eastern Nigeria

Thèse dirigée par :

M. Dmitry IDIATOV Chargé de recherche, LLACAN, CNRS M. Mark VAN DE VELDE Chargé de recherche, LLACAN, CNRS, HDR

RAPPORTEURS :

M. Jeff GOOD Professeur, University at Buffalo

M. Larry M. HYMAN Professeur, University of California at Berkeley

MEMBRES DU JURY :

M. Dmitry IDIATOV Chargé de recherche, LLACAN, CNRS M. Mark VAN DE VELDE Chargé de recherche, LLACAN, CNRS, HDR Mme Sonia CRISTOFARO Professeur, Università degli Studi di Pavia M. Pascal BOYELDIEU Directeur de recherche émérite, LLACAN, CNRS

M. Jeff GOOD Professeur, University at Buffalo

M. Larry M. HYMAN Professeur, University of California at Berkeley M. Florian LIONNET Professeur, Princeton University

Jakob Lesage

ny ൑mǀ.

Kam people, this book is dedicated to you, your ancestors who came before you, your children who will

follow you, and your wonderful country. vii

This description would not exist without the dedication and generosity of the Kam community, and

especially those speakers that spent their valuable time by my side in Sarkin Dawa and in Jalingo. Isa Sarkin Dawa has been incredibly welcoming, supportive, and patient. I remember his help

during the early stages of my field work in the Kam community, when I had to rely on random passers-by

for the initial data in this project. Despite heat, humidity and the long days spent exercising his duties as

king of Kam, he came to my room every morning and every evening to see how I was doing, to ask me about the project, and especially because nyg d bঢh He may have

been puzzled by my slow progress, and our different English accents sometimes confused one another. Still,

he remained gentle, committed, and interested. I also appreciate the personal conversations we had and

happily remember his good humour and cockroach eradication expertise. Ĕ yt , wn ny ngwэ̖m. I am

proud and grateful to have been received so well by the political head of the Kam community. Garba Abubakar Bako, the secretary of the king, was kind and trusting to come visit my supervisors

and me in Ilorin. He literally travelled to the other side of the country without knowing exactly what the

aim this project was, why a couple of people from Europe would want to take his valuable time for a long

drive and a week in a hotel, while he put on hold his administrative and familial responsibilities. This project

owes much of its early progress to his support. Thank you, Abubakar, for coming to Ilorin, for introducing

me to the Kam community and for occasionally visiting me in Sarkin Dawa with such good mood. I could not have imagined a better first consultant. Babangida Audu Pharmacy spent the most time with me in Nigeria. During my second fieldtrip,

he was the first to volunteer to come stay in Jalingo. In Sarkin Dawa, he always allowed me to stay at his

house, which has now become a small linguistics laboratory. He helped me navigate Kam country and

Jalingo, introduced me to friends and family, and continued to work patiently no matter the environment.

Much of the work in this project relies on narratives that were carefully respoken by him, which allowed

me to transcribe and annotate these texts back in Europe. Thank you, ny sn r ny, for your friendship,

your hospitality, your dedication and your unwavering support. Rahab Garba Precious helped me greatly when I needed exact translations of narratives and

conversations. Her intelligence, motivation and good character carried us through these tasks and makes

me proud to call her my friend. Thank you also, Precious for cooking with me and teaching me how to

clean rice, wash intestines, and boil stew over our conversations about religion, education, the future of

viii Kam and casual gossip. Without you, this project would have been less complete, and my acknowledgements to the Kam people full of errors. To Solomon Ahmadu: I apologize for failing to achieve the level of fluency in Kam that you may

have hoped for after four years of study, although I do remember narrowly passing your vocabulary test

during my third visit to Jalingo. Next time

main Kam teachers, one of my first main consultants, and for the time we spent together in Jalingo and in

the Kam country. You continue to encourage my learning and fascination with Kam. Danjuma Bello made time for me amid his farm work, studies and vaccination visits around Kam country, to work on elicitation and to respeak and translate some texts we collected in Kam. He also

accompanied me, together with Babangida and Solomon, on our exciting trips to other Kam villages. Thank

you for your insights and contributions to the project and for your patience with my slow responses to your

Facebook messages.

I am grateful to my other consultants, who spent much of their valuable time sharing their

knowledge of the language with me. I wish to thank Muhammad Bose Yuguda for coming to Sarkin Dawa from Mayo Kam and Bali throughout December 2016 and January 2017; Adamu S. Baka for teaching me

about the Ny Ntэ̗ng wj, traditional marriage and the virtues of a good Kam citizen; David Mamuda for

working with me on his free days, being excellent company and a great cook; David Mark for stopping by

in the evenings after his shoemaker training and your motivation to write and translate; Jauro Babangida

Tukura for letting me stay in his newly built house during my first field trip and for taking the time to come

and visit despite his busy schedule. To all of you, I express my heartfelt appreciation for your hospitality,

your friendship and your support. Many more members of the Kam community contributed valuable information that shaped this

project. I would like to name (in alphabetic order) Abaturu, Amos Joshua, Awel Bello, Awung Kane Kine

Wi, Awunu Shawulu Yakubu, Ardo Sonvini, Ashuwi, Bb Kakamba Yakubu from Sabongida Kamajim, her namesake Bb from Garin Hamza, Bujenki, Daniel Yahuma, Danladi Yawe Kam, Ezekiel Audu, Gambo Motion, Garba Hamza and his wife, Hadassah Esther A. John, Honourable Samuel U. Adams, Hussaini Hamidu, Isa Kimam, Jauro Gardima, Jauro Gata Umari, Jauro Sordenki Baba, John Peter, Jolly Ezekiel, Kanu Kamajim, Lm, Layla Isa, Magaji Cure, Mai Anguwa Sudanggi, Majestically Madaki, Penkane, Prince Abubakar, Saheedu, Sale Musa, Sale Umar, Samaila Umaru, Sami Kharrat, Sani Bello, Se ix Zuwari, Shawiya, Shawuya, Sofiya Blessing Amidu Samuel, Somam, Sule Sudanggi, Usman Bitrus Danfulani, Wesam and Yuguda Manti. This work has benefited greatly from your support. ngw dnm b kr gn l ൑km . sg nr , Ĕ sn k ngw ny mgr r j ny sn tn r ny mǀ I wish to thank my consultants on other languages: David Donga, Inusa Nya Garga, Prince Sambo for Chamba Leko as spoken in Donga, Mr. Shamaki for Jirim and Justina from Shomo Gali for Como

Karim. My special thanks go to Tope Olagunju and Bitrus Andrew for establishing our first links with the

Kam community, for gathering initial data on Kam a lot of which has found its way into this dissertation

and for their great company in Ilorin. I met so many kind and helpful people that made Nigeria feel like my home away from home. In Garba Chede, I wish to thank His Royal Highness Maigandi Kaigama, who generously hosted me in his

house in Jalingo, and who showed great interest my progress. Sa'ad Ibnu Ahmed was a good friend and a

reliable driver. I am grateful to the Emir of Bali, Chief of Bakundi, for receiving me in his palace and for

welcoming me in his country. In Jalingo, I want to thank Mr. AD Usman, Hassan Jaae, Ibiem Abraham

1 Translation: I am happy and grateful for your hospitality. I thank you people for what you have taught me and for

the wonderful things that I have experienced with you. I want to thank everybody who has helped, in any way, to help

me understand the Kam language and the Kam culture/world. The traditional people, the Muslim people and the

Christian people. The elders, the children and all of my friends. Everyone in Kam country, from Garin Shingaw to

Makafi, from Sarkin Dawa to Mayo Kam. From Fincon to Kamajim, and all villages in between and beyond. I would

like to thank the elders, who provided the care and environment for me to work in. I also want to thank everyone who

made the village a pleasant place to stay. Finally, I want to thank my main helpers. If not for them, I would not have

been able to write this book. I put a picture and a short piece of text about each of the language helpers at the end of

this book. Spending the last four years learning about your language and your world has been a great gift to me. I

would like to thank you all one final time for this great thing you have given me. x

Msugh, Inspector Yerima Yaya and Madam Ruth Paul for helping me to get around, and to find good places

to settle. I wish to thank Dr. Ugu for his medical care and Mr. Ziko for his help at the airport. To Nnali

Godia, Murna Naomi Mamman, and their parents, I am grateful for your friendship and warm hospitality.

I hope that I will be able to visit you wonderful people again soon. In Kpasham, I had the great pleasure of

meeting Mr. Francis, Julius Philip of the Isam community. In Mayo Belwa, I had the privilege to meet Patricia Ishaya, a caring, strong and humorous woman who will always have a place in my memories. In

Abuja, I would like to thank Tunde: you were a reliable driver and great fun to hang out with, it was nice

to meet your neighbors, friends and your lovely wife. For their administrative help, I want to thank Mr.

Solomon Gisilanbe at the immigration office in Jalingo, Mr. Ogwuche at the immigration office in Abuja,

Willys Santos at KWASU, Elodie Apard at IFRA and Prof. Ekanola at UI. xi Outside of Nigeria, many remarkable people made immeasurable contributions to my professional and personal development. First and foremost, I want to thank my supervisors Dmitry Idiatov and Mark Van de Velde for their guidance. They shared valuable insights that made the thesis much stronger. This included access to

materials before I started any field work, advice and instructions when I was about to leave, encouragement

to continue sending newer versions of my grammar sketch and their constructive criticism. Dima and Mark

always had an open door, and whether I was in the office, on Skype or texting on WhatsApp, they never

failed to reply. I was grateful for the invitation to stay close to their compound in Ilorin before starting my

work, allowing me to acclimatize to Nigeria and get used to NEPA taking the light (and occasionally

bringing it back: a cause for celebration). Their careful and detailed instructions on moving about in Abuja,

the early fieldwork guidance and the idea to invite Mr. Abubakar to Ilorin eliminated significant barriers

and a lot of stress, making my first field trip a walk in the savannah. On a personal level, I would like to

thank you, Dima and Mark, for trusting me to work from a distance for most of this PhD, and for your

understanding and support in difficult times. You are both inspiring mentors and I am grateful for your

generous support. to the members of the jury, who agreed to read and comment on my manuscript during

a pandemic. I wish to thank you in advance for your comments, which will surely be insightful and help

me advance my future work on the grammar. I am eagerly awaiting your questions at my defense. for their interest,

their encouragement, and for their signatures: Didier Demolin, Maud Devos, Tom Güldemann and Abbie

Hantgan. Un grand merci à Pascal Boyeldieu, qui a accepté participer dans mon premier comité de suivi de

thèse et maintenant dans le jury de ma soutenance, aussi pour nos échanges utiles et sa bonne humeur.

Post-defense update: I feel lucky to have had such a stimulating, cheerful and relaxed defense. The COVID-19 lockdown turned out to be more of a blessing than a curse. jury member

was willing to tune in, at a sometimes less than convenient time of day. Not many PhD-candidates have the

opportunity to defend from the comfort of their ancestral home. to Dima, Mark and my parents

for the organization and set-up of my defense, and I appreciate the administrative support from INALCO

that made this possible. xii I would like to thank the jury, Florian, Jeff, Larry, Pascal and Sonia, for their interest and their enthusiastic support. You made my defense a wonderful, unforgettable experience. Many of your (530!) insightful comments, questions and different perspectives will inspire my future research.

Mes remerciements particuliers vont à Martine Vanhove pour sa volonté d'être co-directrice de mon

projet de doctorat dans les premières étapes, pour nos discussions productives et pour avoir aidé avec mon

français. Je tiens à remercier individuellement Guillaume Segerer pour le soutien financier au cours des

derniers mois de ce projet, et pour sa patience en attendant les résultats de mon travail avec RefLex.

I feel very lucky to have been part of the AdaGram PhD team together with Lora Litvinova, Mirjam that this PhD project would lead to friendships with all you wonderful people.

sites, introducing you and your consultants to the people I work with and vice versa, was a very special

experience. Like finding a piece of home within another home. Our days and nights in Paris, at work and

everywhere else, have created some of the most memorable moments of this PhD. Thank you, Eveling, for

the spontaneous outings, dreamy discussions, meditation and pancake breakfasts. Thank you, Lora, for

always being there, for our wonderfully intricate conversations trying to understand the (academic) world

around us, for sharing your work and your interests, and for the wonderful gatherings at your place (Christmas was really special!). Thank you, Mirjam, for our musical improvisation in the office, for

bringing food for everyone, for sharing your life in Nigeria with us, and for your original egusi soup recipe.

Ana Karina Tavares Moreira, you were the honorary resident of the Adamawa cave. Thank you,

Karina, for your supportive messages throughout the writing process, for always arriving right in time for

the canteen lunches where we discussed all sorts of engaging topics. For being excellent company on our

trip to Leiden, and for making us all proud of your cycling skills! Silué Songfolo Lacina, I enjoyed reading

your proposal on reported speech in Kafire and our discussions on Senufo languages. I was delighted when

I heard that you secured a contrat doctoral with INALCO and inspired work in the near future. I appreciate you all. You have contributed to the story of this PhD within and beyond the pages of this thesis.

Je voudrais remercier mes autres collègues à LLACAN : Isabelle Alanièce, Magali Diraison et Jeanne

Zerner pour leur soutien administratif ; Christian Chanard et Tahar Meddour pour leur assistance

technique ; et mes collègues chercheurs pour leurs commentaires et leur intérêt. Je veux mentionner

ici Ekaterina Aplonova, Bertille Djoupée, Abbie Hantgan-Sonko, Tekabe Legesse, Lorenzo Maselli, Amina

Mettouchi, Aurore Montebran, Tatiana Nikitina, Konstantin Pozdniakov, Mena Lafkioui, Nicolas Quint, xiii Claude Rilly, Stéphane Robert, Neige Rochant, Paulette Roulon-Doko, Marie-Claude Simeone-Senelle,

Clémentine Socroun (merci pour les expériences amusantes de Bachata !), Yvonne Treis, Rebecca Voll et

Sasha Vydrina.

Un grand merci également aux personnes derrière Pangloss pour avoir donné à Kam une place dans les

archives. Je remercie Severine Guillaume et Alexis Michaud pour leur enthousiasme et leur soutien pour le

bon déroulement du processus d'archivage. Throughout my education, I met many people who have made a lasting impression on the way I think about research, linguistics and language(s) and and colleagues. During my BA years in Kortrijk, Jean-Christophe Verstraete inspired me to explore linguistics beyond

English and Dutch. He recognised my fascination and motivated me to pursue these interests more seriously

by introducing me to Australian languages, supervising my MA thesis in Leuven and helping me find my way into typology and to Nijmegen. Your mentorship helped me in ways I can never fully describe or recognize. interest in African languages when he hired me to read some old Flemish and French grammars of Congolese languages. Harald introduced me to Mandana Seyfeddinipur, who told me that Dima and Mark were hiring PhD students to write grammars on Nigerian languages. I want to thank Harald and Mandana for encouraging me to apply. wealth of information he makes available on languages of the world, both to myself and to the scientific community in general. To Mandana, I want to say a special thank you for your training session on visual documentation during the summer school in Leiden in 2016, for introducing me to my upcoming academic endeavor with

ELDP, and for your recent support during the COVID-19 crisis. I sincerely hope our plans come to fruition

in spite of current pressures. In any case, my next field work project will have a major visual component, I

promise! For over five years now, I have been a lucky member of the Grambank coder and patron teams. Reading and coding grammars helped me understand how to structure a grammar and what others would

look for within. This was great preparation for my thesis. Through Grambank, I also met an amazing bunch

of people around the world. I wish to thank Steve Levinson and Russel Gray for making Grambank possible

and my closest Grambank colleagues for our productive discussions: Hedvig Skirgård, Nataliia Hübler,

Tessa Yuditha, Hilário de Sousa, Olga Krasnoukhova, Richard Kowalik, Alena Witzlack-Makarevich and

xiv Hannah Haynie. Though I ended up coding Kam myself, I did my best to write this grammar in a coder- friendly way. I spent much of my time warming up for this PhD project with Jeremy Collins, Jesse Peacock, Luis

Miguel Rojas Berscia and Sir Sailor Sam. I miss our adventures in the Typology Clubhouse and the late

evenings spent musing on (perhaps?) unsolvable questions and wildly ambitious research programs. I wish to thank my MA thesis supervisors in Nijmegen, Sean Roberts and Mark Dingemanse, who may or may not be waiting patiently for progress on my MA thesis publication. You shaped my work on African languages and helped me develop my research skills and my confidence in them. Your guidance was instrumental in my preparation for this PhD position. I am grateful for your inspiration. Other colleagues and teachers who helped me prepare for this academic adventure with discussions,

ideas, constructive criticism and support of many different kinds are Corentin Bourdeau, Helen de Hoop,

Connie De Vos, Ad Foolen, Gabriela Garrido, Elise Hopman, Ans van Kemenade, Kobin Kendrick, Pieter

Muysken, Gunter Senft, Pieter Seuren, Emma Valtersson, Nicoline van der Sijs, Lot Brems, Bert Cornillie,

Hubert Cuyckens, Kristin Davidse, Sofie De Smyter, Lauren Fonteyn, Dirk Geeraerts, Caroline Gentens,

Liesbet Heyvaert, Karen Lahousse, Dana Louagie, Charlotte Maekelberghe, Laura Rosseel, Hans

Smessaert, Dirk Speelman, Freek Van de Velde, Joop van der Horst, An Van Linden, Tinne Van Rompaey, Lieven Vandelanotte, Koen Bostoen, Gilles-Maurice de Schryver, Heidi Goes, Hilde Gunninck, Rebecca Grollemund, Michael Meeuwis and Hannelore Vandenbergen. For our productive interactions during conferences, summer schools and on other occasions, I wish to thank Milad Adebi, Willem Adelaar, Sandra Auderset, Balthasar Bickel, Roger Blench, Eugene Chan,

Denis Creissels, Sonia Cristofaro, Karen De Clercq, Maud Devos, Gerrit de Wit, Holger Diessel, Daniel

Duke, Rita Eloranta, Nick Evans, Gwenaëlle Fabre, Hannah Gibson, Jeff Good, Rozenn Guérois, Tom

Güldemann, Richard Griscom, Jeffrey Heath, Larry Hyman, Austin William Howard, Izabela Jordanoska (thank you for the feedback on the information structure chapter!), Erika Just, Nina Hagen Kaldhol,

Kutsch Lojenga, Lutz Marten, Lidia Federica Mazzitelli, Matti Miestamo, Anna Miri, Maarten Mous, Sara

Pacchiarotti, Steve Pepper, Christian Rapold, Eleanor Ridge, George Saad, Ron Schaefer, Sandro

Sessarego, Galina Sim, Stef Spronck, George Starostin, Sabine Stoll, Ljuba Veselinova, Friederike

Vigeland, Aleksandr Zheltov and Fernanda Ziober.

I want to take some space here to thank the close friends who have been there during critical stages

in my work (and beyond). Carolina, Miguel and Gil, you were great company! I am very happy that I got

the chance to stay at the Portuguese house with you for a few (too short) months. Samir, I hope to be able

xv to visit your country sometimPhD degree

you just achieved. Naminata, merci pour les soirées de cuisine et pour les cours de bachata amusants. À

, peut-être en Europe, peut-être en Côte d'Ivoire ! Eva, het was altijd fijn om bij te praten,

zowel in persoon als per telefoon, en om te klagen om of ons te verblijden over het doctoraatsbestaan. Je

was geregeld een grote steun. Een aantal mensen zijn (hier vanbinnen) bij me blijven zitten sinds ik aan

mijn studies begon in Kortrijk. Haike, uiteraard: hoewel ik vaak niet zo dicht in de buurt ben, is het fijn om

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