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1

J"è "5K7675"W itqt

Doctorat

ANTROPOLOGIE

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Thèse dirigée par : Alban Bensa

Soutenance de thèse: 13 janvier 2010

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bylgy chMch yhto.Sc cd iy kMoàgchm'saéd'p'fjhh

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)eouoxby)egch La Nouvelle-Technolgy yàM glMgbybylM cghy u crtgàMogqy ny iqelmy' Mise sans dessus dessous, pour proposer une autre histoire, un autre savoir. Bouleversement nécessaire, un impératif pour assurer aux jeunes une relecture de tout ce que nous avons appris.

Thèse soutenue le 13 janvier 2010

Membres du jury :

Alban Bensa (Directeur de thèse, EHESS)

3

Avant-propo

s

Remerciements

J'exprime mes remerciements à mon directeur de thèse, le professeur Alban Bensa pour

l'aide compétente qu'il m'a apportée, pour sa patience et son encouragement à finir un travail

commencé il y a longtemps. Son oeil critique m'a été très précieux pour structurer le travail

et pour améliorer la qualité des différentes sections. Ensuite je tiens à remercier le professeur John Storey, qui fut mon premier directeur de thèse au Royal Melbourne Institute of !"#$%&'&()*+*,"'-&./%"*"0*1.2*34a soutenu pendant plusieurs années avant de devoir quitter son poste suite à une maladie grave et soudaine. Il a su me faire bénéficier de ses connaissances photographiques et ses analyses systémiques en histoire coloniale. Je remercie ma famille et mes amis pour leur patience, pour leur compréhension et leurs encouragements continuels pendant ces nomb/".5"5*6%%7"5*8"*/"#$"/#$"*"0*84écriture. Le professeur Max Quanchi et Tony Paice qui ont contribué à relire et remettre en forme mon anglais tout en faisant des remarques pertinentes sur les cinq premiers chapitres. J'exprime aussi ma gratitude à Grant McCall, qui a su me c&%5"2''"/*"0*3"*(.28"/*"0*1.2*34a fait suffisamment confiance pour me permettre de présenter un papier de conférence. L'aboutissement de cette thèse a aussi été encouragé par de nombreuses discussions avec des collègues de disciplines variées. Je ne citerai pas de noms ici, pour ne pas en oublier certains. D'autres personnes m'ont encouragé à finir ce travail par des gestes d'amitié dont je suis reconnaissante. A titre d'exemple, je citerai tout particulièrement Anne Balavoine qui m'a

permis de reformater le contenu de la partie écrite et photographique de cette thèse.

J'exprime ma gratitude aux élèves du lycée Pétro Attiti de la Rivière Salée à Nouméa, qui

ont partagé durant '4année scolaire 2000-2001 la connaissance de leur tribu, leur culture 4

1.4elle soit Kanak, Wallisienne, Asiatique, Vanuataise, Caldoche ou métissée. Je tiens tout

particulièrement à les remercie/* 9&./* '"5* %&3-/".5"5* 36/1."5* 846::"#02&%* 1.42'5* 34ont

portée 56#$6%0*1."*;4étais étrangère (Aus0/6'2"%%"<*"0*'"./*9/&:"55"./*84anglais au lycée. Je

pense aussi très chaleureusement à la famille Wahéo et toute la tribu Wakatch à Wadrilla,

1.2*346*6##."2''2*5./*'4='"*84Ouvéa en 2001. Des moments inoubliables, où, au-delà de la vie

calme en tribu, nous avons partagé la date fatidique du 11 septembre. Ma reconnaissance va

au pasteur Jacob Wahéo qui nous a tenu informé de l'évolution de la situation grâce à son

transistor. Je leur suis profondément reconnaissante à tous. Je %"*9".>*965*%&%*9'.5*&.-'2"/*'4aide sans faille 8"*,2/"2''"*,&.2''"5"6.>?*1."*;4ai 84abord rencontré au fond photographique du CDP 8"*@&.376?*.%"*/"%#&%0/"*1.2*54est révélée aux cours des années une très belle ami027A* ,"/#2* +* ,6>* B$"C'"0&%* 8"* 34avoir donné '4autorisation de publier ici certaines photographies et cartes postales de sa collection. Je tiens également à remercier Jean-Claude Mermoud de m'avoir permis de reproduire les

9$&0&(/69$2"5*8"*'4ancêtre de sa belle famille : le photographe Max Meyer.

Un hommage tout particulier au professeur Paul de Deckker, décédé cet été 2009, qui fut un

ami et un soutien. Paul de Deckker est mort bien trop tôt, avant que je puisse avoir terminé

36* 0$D5"?* 3625* ;4$&%&/"* 56* 373&2/"* 6.;&./84hui en rendant ce travail. Je lui suis tout

pa/02#.'2D/"3"%0*/"#&%%62556%0"*846E&2/*707*+*'F2%202602E"*84G0/"*'47'DE"*84Alban Bensa. " Last but not least » je remercie également tous les membres de mon jury de thèse : les professeurs Alban Bensa, Grant McCall et Max Quanchi.

Dédicace

Cette thèse est dédiée à Hélène Burgaud, ma grand-3D/"?*1.2?*-2"%*1.4elle soit décédée

avant même le #&33"%#"3"%0*8"*#"00"*0$D5"?*34a donné le goût de la recherche dans tous les domaines. Elle-même entreprit des recherches sur nos ancêtres partis après les guerres 5

napoléoniennes en Louisiane puis à Cuba. Ces mémoires m'ont fortement aidée à

comprendre l'importance de l'Histoire, de son histoire familiale, et m'ont permis de saisir toute la pertinence de raconter de5*$250&2/"5?*#&33"*#"''"5*1."*;4ai pu écouter en Nouvelle- Calédonie H* 8"5* $250&2/"5* 846%#G0/"5* C6%6C?* 84immigrés Javanais, de descendants de bagnards et toutes les abondantes et belles histoires qui font aujourd'hui la richesse de la

Nouvelle-Calédonie.

Comment faire une thèse en onze ans

Le sujet de thèse a été déposé début 1998 et le mémoire préliminaire de thèse a été accepté à

'46.0&3%"*8"*#"00"*3G3"*6%%7"*"0*:.0*/782(7*"%*6%('625A*I*#"*3&3"%0-là, j'étais étudiante à

,"'-&./%"*+*'4.%2E"/5207*8"*J,K!A*L%*MNNO*'4287"*84.%"*#&-0.0"''"*6E"#*'4LHESS se mit en

fallut attendre 2005 pour que la co-tutelle soit signée entre les deux universités, la rédaction

devait se faire en anglais et la soutenance devait se faire dans la même langue ainsi qu'en

français, comme prévu dans les accords. La co-tutelle a dû être abandonnée pour cas de

:&/#"* 36;"./"?* 6'&/5* 1."* '"* 0/6E62'* 8F7#/20./"* 70620* "%(6(7* 8"9.25* 9'.52"./5* 6%%7"5A* P"* /"3"/#2"*'4LTLBB*846E&2/*6##"907*1." la thèse soit rendue en anglais bien que la co-tutelle %"* 5&20* 9'.5* 846#0.6'207A* P"* :.5* 9/&:&%873"%0* 600/2507"* 8"* '6* 87#252&%* 8"* J,K!* UJ&)6'*

coopération interna02&%6'"* "%0/"* '4I.50/6'2"* "0* '6* V/6%#"A* P"* 3"* /7;&.25* #"9"%86%0* 8"* '6*

présence de deux spécialistes australiens à Paris pour la soutenance.

Tout en regrettant aujourd'hui de ne pas avoir rendu ma thèse plus tôt, je suis persuadée que

ce travail n'a pas vie2''2?* 6.* #&%0/62/"?* 2'* 6* 3W/2A* X"* 9'.5?* '47E&'.02&%* /6928"* 86%5* '6*

#&%50/.#02&%*28"%02062/"*"0*'"*(62%*846.0&%&32"*8"*'6*@&.E"''"-Calédonie depuis la signature 6 photograph

21."A* P462* 7(6'"3"%0* 9.* "::"#0."/* 8"* %&3-/".5"5* 70.8"5* #&396/7"5* 6E"#* '6*

situation chez les Inuit au Nunavut et chez les Navajos aux Etats-Unis.

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Abstract

The purpose of my thesis is to examine how photography recorded colonial expansion and helped forge a Kanak image and identity. Portrayed in the nineteenth century as a victory of European expansionism and civilisation over a primitive and backward Kanak society, the colonial era has now been challenged by postcolonial discourses denouncing these Eurocentric beliefs. I challenge the revolutionary ladder found in nineteenth century New Caledonia, where a stratification of ethnic communities was present. Throughout my thesis I discuss the evolution of the techniques of photography from 19th century to our modern usage of the medium which has become utterly routinised and is deeply inserted into social practices. The extensive collection of New Caledonia photographs dating back to as early as 1840 what was to be the emergence of New Caledonian identity. It is often that we ask photography to confirm our existence, old photographs becoming irresistible. They become mirrors of what we are, what we have been, reflecting our reality, our significance and ultimately our history. The photographs of the Kanak were stereoptic photographs and showed them with stiff expressions as in fear of their photographers. Photographs became fashionable through paper prints called cartes-de-visites which were mounted on cardboard and featured natives in various costumes and occupations. Individual photographs as well as the group collectively : colonial photography was a tool used in the efforts to control the indigenous population. 8 In my thesis I analyse the evolution of the Kanak identity and the process of acculturation brought by the French through the settlements by various communities, the Church and the growing economy of the 19 th century. The images are fundamental to the project, being a major source for research and critical evaluation. It is only over the last few decades that the importance of photography as a cultural manifestation has been addressed. My thesis tries to answer how photographic evidence surveyed reflect, deny or obscure the position of Kanaks within their own country and the process of acculturation and identity building in New Caledonia.

Key words :

Photography [ New Caledonia [ Oceania [ Social classes [ Transculturation [ Diversity [ Colonialism [ Missionaries [ Penal colony [ Mining [ International migrations [

Indigeneity Sovereignty

Mots-clés :

Photographie [ Nouvelle-Calédonie [ Océanie [ Classes sociales [ Transculturation [ Diversité [ Coloniaslisme [ Missionaires [ Bagne [ Minerais [ Migrations internationales [

Autochtonie [ Souveraineté

9

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 13

T

Chapter 2 Photography and colonialism ............................................................................... 32T

1. Photography from 1839 ................................................................................................. 32T

2.1.1. Changing formats: providing contemporaneity to images .................................. 33T

2.1.2. Photography and its temporal and spatial processes ........................................... 38T

2.2. Photography as recording and documenting .............................................................. 46T

2.2.1. Extracting the meaning of images: a product of culturally formed, agreed-upon

and recognised codes and conventions .......................................................................... 48

T

2.2.2. The intellectual possibilities of photographs ....................................................... 55T

2.3. Marginalisation and Sexuality .................................................................................... 60T

2.3.1. The model: accessible, credible and profitable ................................................... 63T

2.3.2. Photography: a stealer of souls ? ......................................................................... 72T

2.3.3. Identification of self or other? ............................................................................. 77T

2.4 Perception of the 'Other' ............................................................................................. 78T

2.4.1 Representing the 'other' through photography and the notion of 'happy faces' . 80T

2.4.2. Capturing Otherness as reality ............................................................................ 82T

2.4.3. The case of 'otherness' in New Caledonian literature ........................................ 87T

2.5 Representing colonial possessions .............................................................................. 94T

2.5.1. Nationalism and exoticism .................................................................................. 95T

2.5.2. The performance of photographs : an enactment of colonial control ............... 103T

2.6. Captions and postcards ............................................................................................. 108T

2.6.1. Invention of the postcard ................................................................................... 109T

2.6.2. The distorted role of captions ............................................................................ 115T

2.6.3. Formulaic captions and its restrictiveness ......................................................... 119T

2.6.4. Postcards: bonding empire and propaganda ...................................................... 124T

Chapter 3 French photography in New Caledonia: the expression of colonial rule ........... 131T

3.1. France in pre and 19

th century .................................................................................. 137T

3.1.1. The inheritance of Rousseau and Diderot ......................................................... 137T

3.1.3. The collapse of Napoleon's grand European dream: a severe blow to France's

expansionist desires ..................................................................................................... 143

T

3.1.4. Turmoil and political instability ........................................................................ 145T

3.1.5. The Franco-Prussian war and the Commune .................................................... 145T

3.2. The colony of New Caledonia 1853-1914 ............................................................... 147T

3.2.1. Phantasm and political agenda: the Kanak revolt of 1878 ................................ 147T

3.2.2. European free settlers: a multicultural and heterogenous setting ...................... 158T

3.3. The Kanak: defining indigeneity .............................................................................. 164T

3.3.1. Prior to European contact .................................................................................. 164T

3.3.2. Forced labour or contract labour? ..................................................................... 167T

3.3.3. Blackbirding and the Kanakas ........................................................................... 169T

3.4. Photographers ........................................................................................................... 176T

3.4.1. The non established: adventurers and navigators .............................................. 179T

3.4.2. Professional photographers and their studio settings ........................................ 184T

Chapter 4 Photography Convict period ............................................................................... 189T

4.1 The emerging use of photography with the Commune ............................................. 192T

4.1.1 Recording and documenting the insurrection of Paris ....................................... 193T

10

4.1.2. Introducing photography for police documentation .......................................... 196!

4.2. New Caledonia: land of convicts ............................................................................. 201!

4.2.1. Arrival and dispositions : a hierarchy among convicts ..................................... 201!

4.2.1. Photographic documentation of installations and camps .................................. 205!

4.2.1. Perception through foreign eyes: novelist Beatrice Grimshaw ......................... 209!

4.3. Convict press and illustrations ................................................................................. 218!

4.3.1. The evolving relationship between the press and photography ........................ 218!

4.3.2. The escape of Henri Rochefort to Australia ...................................................... 223!

Chapter 5 !Photography Typologies and Cataloguing .................................................... 230!

5.1. Typifying diverse cultural groups in photographs ................................................... 230!

5.1.1. Preserving historical and social memory .......................................................... 230!

5.2. Defining societal structure through interchangeable images: methods used to classify,

hierarchies, and serialise ................................................................................................. 233

5.3.Fluidity and mutability: a Pacific 'melting pot' ........................................................ 235!

5.3.1. The metis ........................................................................................................... 239!

5.3.2. Wallisians and Futunians .................................................................................. 239!

5.3.1. New Hebridians ................................................................................................. 242!

5.3.4. The Chinese ....................................................................................................... 244!

5.3.5. The Tahitians ..................................................................................................... 246!

5.3.6. The Bourbons & Malabars ................................................................................ 248!

5.3.7. The Arabs .......................................................................................................... 252!

5.3.8. The Indochinese ................................................................................................ 254!

5.3.9. The Japanese ..................................................................................................... 255!

5.3.8. The Javanese & Sundanese ............................................................................... 257!

Chapter 6 Photography: Settlers and Officials ............................................................ 262!

6.1. Missionaries ............................................................................................................. 262!

6.1.1. The expansion of missionaries in the Pacific .................................................... 263!

6.1.2. Missionaries in New Caledonia: Catholics ....................................................... 264!

6.1.3. Protestant missionaries in the Oceania .............................................................. 273!

6.1.4. French missions in the Pacific ........................................................................... 274!

6.2. Recording and influencing in a Protestant and Anglo context ................................. 277!

6.1.3. Religious-made iconography: debating pious and worthy intentions ............... 280!

6.2. Documentary and expeditionary aspirations ............................................................ 287!

6.3. Modernisation and materiality ................................................................................. 288!

6.3.1. Settlers: attracting farmers ................................................................................... 288!

6.3.1. Mining ............................................................................................................... 293!

Chapter 7 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 298!

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 303!

Films ............................................................................................................................ 355!

Archives ...................................................................................................................... 356!

Interview ...................................................................................................................... 359!

Photographic exhibitions ............................................................................................. 360!

Annexes ............................................................................................................................... 361!

Further photographs ............................................................................................................ 362!

Everyday life in Noumea ............................................................................................. 362!

Description of ethnic differences between Melanesians and Polynesians .................. 367!

Census of the population of Bourail in 1906 ............................................................... 368!

Penal administration-booklet for freed convicts with periodic calls ........................... 369!

WW1 Military recognition Wabéco Léon, Kanak from Maré .................................... 370!

Camera Chronology ........................................................................................................ 373!

1826 Niepce camera .................................................................................................... 373!

1839 Daguerreotype camera ........................................................................................ 374!

11

1851 Heliographic processes ....................................................................................... 374!

1853 Folding drawer chamber ..................................................................................... 375!

1870 Laboratory tent with camera, Jonte & Domenech .............................................. 376!

1888 Hard camera sheet - Photosphère ...................................................................... 377!

1888 Eastman Kodak celluloid Film(soft film)........................................................... 377!

1903 Lumière autochrom reversed emulsion .............................................................. 379!

1914 Pocket Kodak camera ......................................................................................... 382!

1916 Agfacolor 35 mm color negative ........................................................................ 383!

PHOTOGRAPHERS in New Caledonia ......................................................................... 384!

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The correlation between photography and colonial expansionism suggests that photography was used to record European successes in their colonies for an audience left at home. Photographs taken of New Caledonia (which became a French possession in 1853) shared the objective of attracting settlers to the newly acquired colony while promoting the grandeur of the French conquest in the Pacific over their English enemies. Photography in its official usage was perceived as free from aesthetic convention. That made it uniquely bGNeFcp 6a8p E6de6ldFp 65p rGp 9nNGN6sF8p GjFp FGjantN69jrip ]nGjFNc?p 65p _Fddp 65p GN6EFdp 6a8p 14 surveillance (convicts). Pinney (1997:76-dd<*655"/05*0$60*b20*_65*#&33&%')*$"'8*0$60*205* indexical quality of art inevitably removed it from the realm of the arbitrary and

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subject of constant debate and negotiation. Film, was in its experimental phase. collect scientific data. Imagery makes claims to represent accurately and to communicate experience or behaviour which has cultural relevance to the subject. Edwards (1996:198)

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Photography offered proof of newly discovered peoples and territories to anthropologists and confirmed theories of evolution. The extreme in terms of certainty and proof is fingerprinting, whose veracity is an unquestionable proof of visual figure/data. "In William J. T"/5#$"'45*6##&.%0*&:*0$"*&/2(2%*&:*:2%("/9/2%02%(*U#20"8*2%*S2%%")?*OYYdHMO&:* 239"/26'* 5.-;"#05H* ]K%* K%826* 65* 2%* &0$"/* f/202sh colonies the natives were illiterate,

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(Ginzburg cited in Pinney, 1997:68-69). 15 !-C('5)-C$;$T$echnolgoyo nclàMbuychonrltclqilmbuycqqcG'iqstbhocaléddd$ With the mapping of New Caledonia on September 4, 1774, by Captain Cook, writings and sketches appear recounting first encounters with the indigenous people (see engraving 1). This attraction of discovering the 'other' in art and literature took on new dimensions when photography was used to record the other and the 'new world' of Oceania. Many commentators have noted the pre-eminent role that visuality has assumed within modern societies. Pinney (1997:17) indicates that colonies were frequently the testing grounds for new techniques of visual control. When New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853, France already claimed an overseas empire extending from the Americas to Africa and to the Indian Ocean. Throughout France's expansion, visual recordings were included in reports (such as sketches in early colonosiation) etc... Lithographic reproductions and engravings tended to mutate as they were successively copied. Pinney (1997:20) further suggest that "one encounters time and time again in 19 th century administrative and early anthropological literature the complaint that ... nothing is as it seems". 16 !-C('5)-C$>$T$echnolgoyo nclàMbuychonrltclqilmbuycqqcG'iqstbhocaléddd$ It is in the 1890s that photographs began to be reproduced as photographs and not engravings coinciding with the development of films and actualités (news). The half-tone process allowed printing of photographs. French colonies on the American continent included the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon in North America, Martinique and Guadeloupe in the West Indies (colonised in the early 1600s) as well as the vast territory of Guyane on the South American continent. In the Indian Ocean, France possessed La Réunion (taken over in the 1600s), the island of Mayotte in the Comoros chain (which came under French rule in 1840) and bases on the island of Sainte-Marie and at Nossy-Bé in Madagascar. By 1830, France had established authority over coastal regions of Algeria and was expanding into the North African hinterland. Between 1880 and 1912, all of Africa was claimed by European powers. France ultimately acquired regions that came to be known as French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, and the French Cameroons, and established protectorates in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. Other French territories were French Somaliland, and French Togoland. France also held the cities of Pondichéry, Chandernagor, Yanaon, Karikal and Mahé in India (the

Comptoirs français) as well as

17

trading posts in Sénégal and on the Guinea cost. In the South Pacific, the Tuamoto,

Australs, the Society Islands and the Marquesas gradually merged after beginning as a French protectorate in 1842. The islands of Wallis and Futuna followed in 1887. The New Hebrides were governed under a French-British Condominium from 1906 to 1980. Pre-photographic representations always depended on the trustworthiness of the author/artist. Many early volumes of lithographs included assurances of the closeness of fit between the image and the reality. W. T. Blandford in 1871 noted that illustrations do not "'convey by any means a correct impression; like most lithographs of foreign scenes printed complaint of Europeanisation was also levelled at representations of K%82645* 9"&9'"5hA* in lithography and engraving disappeared entirely with 0$"* 68E"%0* &:* 9$&0&(/69$)cA* Photography as a tool was only accessible to the few and the wealthy. Prior to the illustrated media boom after 1890, printed photographs of New Caledonia reached middle class and lower class audiences in metropolitan France. The desire to diffuse photographic images in great number through the press had animated the photographic medium at a very early stage. During the period of 1870-1914, the goal was to exceed the limits of photography, which though reproducible, was not multipliable ad infinitum. Photography could not become the only "medium of mass production" necessary to 19 th century Western societies. The development of feature films, classic Hollywood for the masses and act film for the middle-classes filled this necessity. In New Caledonia, essentially, only the population in Noumea and settlers throughout la Grande Terre had access to photographs and could visualise prints. It is believed that the 18 Kanak, the indigenous people of New Caledonia, in isolated tribes had no access to the photographs of which they were the subject. However, prior to sending back photographs to their respective religious affiliations (Catholic or Protestant), missionaries present in New Caledonia might have showed them to the Kanak they were slowly converting. The colonies provided France with raw materials (especially sugar and other tropical products), and markets and strategic bases for the French military and mercantile fleets around the world. Administrators, soldiers, traders, missionaries and a few French settlers completed the French colonial présence, including penal settlements in Guyane and New Caledonia. The 1848 revolution in France brought the abolition of slavery, changed the foundations of economic and social life in the old colonies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Guyane and Reunion, and freed its 262,564 slaves. Plantation owners subsequently brought in large numbers of contract workers from the Indian subcontinent. In India, photography was widely accepted. Pinney (1997:23) indicates that the British had "mobilised photography in [their] attempt to have knowledge of and control over, diverse and mobile process came to invest photography with an authority that could not be reduced to its benefited from the abolition of slavery, but gained little else. However, the reformists were not anti-colonialists until the French government tried to turn conquered territories into settler colonies. In 1851, Guyane became a penal colony. Two years later Napoleon III took over New Caledonia. His goal was in part to establish a new penitentiary in the Pacific (which lasted for four decades after 1864), thus providing free labour used to turn New Caledonia into a settler colony. By the time New Caledonia became a French possession in

1853, territories in the Pacific under the British Crown included the eastern half of

Australia (1788) and New Zealand (1840). Neighbouring British Melanesia, Fiji, British 19 New Guinea and the Solomon Islands were to be annexed in 1875, 1884 and 1892 respectively and north-eastern New Guinea by the Germans in 1884. Photography from the French Pacific was therefore similar to the imaging that emerged from the British Pacific and Dutch Pacific colonies. The newly acquired territory of New Caledonia was not founded under a deliberate colonial scheme, but by a slow process of settlement by private individuals: missionaries and commercial adventurers, sandalwooders and whalers. These were the first soft cross- cultural contacts. The French crossed cultural boundaries and adapted to their new environments [ the French were sometimes called trans-culturites. They later adapted to local needs by employing foreign labour such as the Javanese, Tonkinese, Japanese and New Hebrideans. They also contributed innovations to their host society, but generally in ways that did not overtly disrupt that culture. These early French and other European arrivals were beachcombers who assimilated to their host communities while also using their linguistic and technical skills to mediate with foreign ships. Because these colonists were small in number, their very survival often required that they earn acceptance. It is only after these private individuals [ traders, labour recruiters, passing merchant shipping - established a certain degree of presence in the territory did the government involve itself in the colonisation process. Metropolitan settlers arrived in increasing numbers after France officially took possession of New Caledonia and gradually gained control. According to

L8_6/85*UOYYiHMNQ th century when illustrated books began to proliferate, the past had become an increasingly visual experience (Lowenthal, 1985:257-8) to the ">0"%0* 0$60* ]E25.6'25602&%4* $65* -"#&3"* 0$"* 9/"8&32%6%0* 6%8* 8250&/02%(* "39$6525* 2%*

9600"/%2%(*0$"*9650*Uj//)?*OYYNHOOM 20 The Kanak people were resettled or confined to reservations (decree on land seizure January 20, 1855) while the French state conceded to settlers between 1,000 and 230,000 hectares of land to settlers. Within the confines of these reservations the original populations enjoyed partial or full local autonomy while outside the reservations they could not represent themselves politically. The economic systems, infrastructure and development projects of the settlers served their own needs exclusively. In many cases, land inhabited or used by original inhabitants was taken for the purpose of building roads, dams and power stations. These development projects not only did not benefit the original population but also often reduced them to poverty and structural dependence. As the b_2'8"/%"55c*_65*-/&.($0*.%8"/*#.'02E602&%*by the settlers, the Kanak people lost their own independent means of subsistence. They were also subdued to forced labour (decree of May

6, 1871 and March 6, 1876). The Kanak were forced to compete with the settlers on terms

introduced and imposed by the latter. As many of the Kanak were unable or unwilling to do so, they were pushed to the margins of society. The maintenance of colonial rule took very '200'"*"::&/0A*!$"*:2/"6/35*&:*0$"*5"00'"/5*9/&E"8*:6/*5.9"/2&/*0&*0$"*]TecehnTo (spears) and casse têteo (war club) of the original Kanak. After some initial fighting, a heavy French military presence was believed unnecessary. The rebellions of 1870 and 1917 belied this false sense of security. By 1900, New Caledonia was a hybrid colony, as it possessed both settlements and exploitation of its natural resources composed of chromium, nickel and cobalt. This brought successively Tahitian troops, New Hebridean workers, sugar planters from Reunion along with Indian labourers, Berber deportees, Japanese, Tonkinese/Vietnamese, Javanese, Tahitians, Wallisians and others. Although French settlers were ex-convicts, traders and government officials, they identified with metropolitan France and soon regarded New Caledonia as their home, no longer perceiving

Paris as their primary capital.

21
The mapping of New Caledonia and the first impressions of the early Europeans were /"#&/8"8?* :&''&_2%(* &-5"/E602&%5* 6%8* 2%0"/6#02&%5* _20$* 0$"* %"_')* 825#&E"/"8* ]50/6%("4* peoples and the beginning of classification and stereotyping. Cook recounts the theft of a _60#$* _$2#$* _65* '60"/* /"0./%"8* 2%* J2E2D/"45*

Découverte de la Nouvelle-Calédonie

_"/"*688"8*-)*f/.%)*84L%0/"#650"6.>*2%*OdYO*8./2%(*$25*E&)6("*to search for La Pérouse

2%* OdZZA* I:0"/* /"6#$2%(* f6'68"* 2%* OdYQ?* $25* 8"5#/2902&%5* &:* 0$"* ]`6%61."54

1 were These first writings and drawings were the beginning of recording and documenting New Caledonia. They created the basis for categorising for the audiences in Europe. With the invention of the camera, the public came to accept photographs as vivid witnesses to b/"6'20)cA*f6%06*UOYZiHd<*2%82#60"5*0$60*b6''*0&&*:/"1."ntly, however, anthropologists and photographers were influenced by their own preconceptions and prejudices, presenting inquotesdbs_dbs10.pdfusesText_16

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