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Childhood growth in the

Neolithic: a detailed case study

Emmy Bocaege

Institute of Archaeology

University College London

2015
Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy - 2 -

Disclaimer

I, Emmy Bocaege, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis.

Emmy Bocaege

- 3 -

Abstract

The main aim of this project is to provide an insight into childhood experiences in the Neolithic Near East and to investigate the variation in skeletal and dental growth patterns within the context of the profound social and environmental changes taking place during this time period. Detailed archaeological information is available for the considerable sample of immature human remains, which is unique for this time period and area of the world. methodology based on osteological and dental analysis of growth and development is utilised and results are interpreted using archaeological evidence. Tooth enamel does not remodel during life and teeth are well recovered from archaeological sites, making tooth crowns an important archive of an individual"s development. Using a newly developed 3D technique, a detailed investigation into the variation in the expression of dental growth disturbances (furrow-form enamel hypoplasia) is carried out. The relationship between dental development and skeletal growth is analysed by comparing the enamel hypoplasia dataset to skeletal growth patterns which are considered to be more influenced by environmental factors than dental development. In order to capture differences in growth occurring throughout the child"s life, skeletal growth trajectories are explored by quantitative assessments of skeletal variables representing different functional regions (cranium, mandible and postcranial bones) which grow at different rates. Together, the data outline a life history for each child, and are used to reveal the pattern of growth disruptions experienced by children buried in different houses and in different time periods. Results show that growth disruptions affect skeletal and dental growth in different ways, suggesting that interpretations based solely on enamel hypoplasia or skeletal growth patterns might obscure the level of disruption experienced by children in past populations. This study also indicates that there are no consistent differences in the level of growth disruptions affecting the dental and skeletal development of children buried in different houses. In contrast, there are consistent differences in skeletal growth patterns between children buried in different time periods, with individuals buried in the later occupation phase displaying smaller skeletal sizes for their ages than individuals buried in the earlier occupation phase. As suggested that smaller support groups provided less buffering against growth disruptions during this later period.

Table of Contents

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Abstract 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of Figures 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of tables 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Acknowledgements 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Archaeological context 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Theoretical framework 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1. Chronology 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.2. Neolithic climate and landscape in Central Anatolia 24. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.3. Population 25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.4. Architecture 26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.5. Food consumption 31. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.6. Human remains 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.7. SocioŠeconomic organisation 46. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.8. Diachronic change 56. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3. Definition of the archaeological research questions 59. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Introducing the concept of growth 60. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1. Dental development and anatomy 61. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.1. Physical structure and properties of teeth and supporting tissues 61. .

3.1.2. Organic and inorganic composition of mineralised tissues 65. . . . . . . . .

3.1.3. Tooth germ development 66. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.4. Crown formation 68. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.5. Incremental structures 69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.6. Growth disturbances 76. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.7. Applications 81. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2. Skeletal growth 82. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.1. Physical structure and properties of bone 83. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.2. Organic and inorganic composition of mineralised tissues 84. . . . . . . . .

3.2.3. Appearance of ossification centres 85. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.4. Morphological development of ossification centres 87. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.5. Fusion of ossification centres 89. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.6. Skull growth 90. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.7. Developmental disturbances 91. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.8. Applications 96. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Literature review 98. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1. Furrow-form enamel hypoplasia 98. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.1. Early definitions 98. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.2. Hypoplasia and crown development 99. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.3. Hypoplasia and cell structure 99. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.4. Types of enamel hypoplasia 101

4.1.5. Etiology 104. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.6. Enamel hypoplasia and noise" 110. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.7. Enamel hypoplasia and bioarchaeology 112. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.8. Recording furrowŠform enamel hypoplasia 116. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table of Contents

Š 5 Š

4.1.9. Interpreting furrowŠform enamel hypoplasia 121. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2. Skeletal growth 135. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.1. Historical perspective 135. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.2. Types of skeletal development data 139. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.3. Interpreting skeletal growth 141. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.4. Limitations of skeletal growth studies 147. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.5. Skeletal growth and stress indicators" 148. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5. Methodology 151. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1. Furow-form enamel hypoplasia 151. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.1. Data collection procedures 152. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.2. Identification of defects 162. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.3. Interpretation of defects 179. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2. Skeletal growth 181. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.1. Data collection procedures 181. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.2. Variation in dental ageing 188. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.3. Analysis of skeletal growth 193. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.4. Comparison of dental and skeletal growth patterns 196. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6. Materials 198. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2. Preservation and taphonomy 199. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3. Labelling and provenience 201. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4. Specimen selection 202. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.1. Dental study 202. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.2. Skeletal study 206. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7. Results 211. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1. Furrow-form enamel hypoplasia 212. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1.1. Matching of defects 212. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1.2. Comparison between individuals 216. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2. Skeletal growth 231. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.1. Dental age distribution 231. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.2. Variation in bone size 232. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.3. Curve fitting 233. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.4. Analysis of long bones 238. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.5. Thorax, pectoral and pelvic girdles 245. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.6. Hand and foot bones 249. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.7. Cranial variables 252. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3. Comparisons of skeletal and dental development 257. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3.1. Number of matched defects per zone 257. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3.2. Number of affected perikymata per quarter 261. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8. Discussion 265. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9. Conclusion 277. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bibliography 280. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX 1: Defect matching procedure 345. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX 2: Summary statistics 391. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of Figures

Š 6 Š

Middle East

Figure 2.4: Schematic overview illustrating the continuity of buildings Figure 2.5: Plan of Building 52, 4040 area, Hodder level 4040G.

Figure 2.6: Commemorative deposit:

Figure 2.7: FireŠrelated discolouration to main floor platform, Building 52, 4040 area Figure 2.8: Macrobotanical and macrofaunal distributions within Building 52

Figure 2.9: Young adult female skeleton 18457 found in a flexed position undernortheast platform in Building 76, Hodder level South O

Figure 2.10: Humerus of juvenile skeleton 17939 (feature 4028, Building 49, area

4040, Hodder level 4040G) showing thick layers of phytoliths wrappedaround bone

Figure 2.11: Burial with headless skeleton 4593, adult male from Building 6, Hodderlevel South L

Figure 2.12: Intestinal parasite (Echinococcus Granulosus) found in the stomachcavity of Skeleton 15960, adult female, around 18Š25 years old

(Foundation trench 23, area 4040) Figure 2.13: Reconstruction of Mellaart shrine" 10 from Mellaart level VIB Figure 3.1: Mandible with permanent teeth demonstrating siding terminology Figure 3.2: Mixed permanent and deciduous upper and lower dentition Figure 3.3: Drawing demonstrating the principal parts of a tooth Figure 3.4: Diagram illustrating the process of tooth germ development Figure 3.5: Schematic representation of tooth with appositional and imbricational enamel, striae of Retzius and perikymata Figure 3.6: BackŠscattered electron image of section of enamel surface showingcross striations

Figure 3.7: Crown section of a lower third premolar showing the buccal cusp tip andside of the crown.

Figure 3.8: Microradiograph of a primary incisor from a 2 month old individual Figure 3.9: Polarised light montage of a section (90...110?m) of the crown of the first molar (lingual cusp) illustrating the position of the accentuated lines associated with the major life events in a gorilla specimen Figure 3.10: Main features of the microstructure of bone Figure 3.11: Epiphysis, diaphysis and metaphysis/growth plate Figure 3.12: XŠray (anterior view) of a developing knee Figure 3.13: Schematic representation of the development of the epiphysis and metaphysis of the proximal humerus Figure 4.1: Diagrammatic representation of amelogenesis according to Weinmann etal. 1945

Figure 4.2: Types of enamel hypoplasia

Figure 4.3: 3D image showing perikymata within a furrowŠform defect

Figure 4.4: Four molars, from individual with congenital syphilis. Known as mulberrymolars for the distinctive appearance of the deformity

List of Figures

Š 7 Š

Figure 4.5: Chronology of tooth development (labial view) according to Massler et al.1941 Figure 4.6: Chronology of tooth development according to Reid and Dean 2006 Figure 4.7: Drawing of fetal skeleton by Kerckring (1717) Figure 4.8: Example of skeleton growth profile based on femur Figure 5.1: Image of the Alicona InfiniteFocus instrument Figure 5.2: ThreeŠdimensional model of lower central incisor crown, labial surface Figure 5.3: Labelled image of part of the crown of a lower central incisor Figure 5.4: Enamel surface (green) and perikyma spacing (blue) profile for lower left lateral incisor Figure 5.5: Cumulative spacing plot on perikyma counts for lower left lateral incisor Figure 5.6: Cumulative spacing of measurements taken on upper left central incisor crown and replica Figure 5.7: Effect of the alpha parameter on the LOWESS residuals

Figure 5.8: Enamel surface and perikyma spacing profile for lower left lateral incisor(CH 6682), smoothed using a group of 13 neighbouring perikymata

visually identified defects Figure 5.9: Image of the lower right lateral incisor (CH 6682) demonstrating visually identified and metrically verified defects

Figure 5.10: ZŠscores for lower left lateral incisor (CH 6682). Based on movingmeans and running medians of 13 sets of neighbouring data

Figure 5.11: Plotted residuals of the LOWESS fitting procedure using cumulative perikyma spacings measured on the lower left lateral incisor (CH 6682) Figure 5.12: Image of the lower left lateral incisor (CH 6682) and prominent perikymata identified using the LOWESS fitting procedure

Figure 5.13: BoxŠplot of residual values for occlusal, midŠcrown and cervical regionsfor the lower left lateral incisor with corresponding defects

Figure 5.14: ZŠscores for lower right lateral incisor (CH 6682). Based on moving means and running medians of 9 sets of neighbouring data Figure 5.15: Plotted residuals of the LOWESS fitting procedure using cumulative perikyma spacings measured on the lower right lateral incisor (CH 6682) Figure 5.16: Moorrees Fanning and Hunt formation stages for (singleŠrooted)permanent teeth Figure 5.17: Plots comparing the first measurement against the second measurement of permanent and deciduous teeth Figure 5.18: Scatterplot of the differences between dental age estimates based on

means and medians from dental development stages and means fromdental development stages and dental age estimates based on tooth

measurements plotted against the overall mean age Figure 5.19: Tooth height of deciduous upper first incisor plotted against tooth height of deciduous upper second incisor

Figure 5.20: Plot of radius diaphyseal length against predicted mean dUI1 heightwith linear, quadratic and cubic regression lines

Figure 5.21: Distribution of residuals (standardised using ZŠscores) from a quadratic regression mathematically describing the relationship between the diaphyseal length of the radius and predicted mean dUI1 heights Figure 6.1: Neonatal skeleton (14818) found eroding out of North wall of Building 53

Figure 6.2: Footprint of permanent shelter in the South area; Settlement plan fromMellaarts Level VII (Hodder Level South M)

List of Figures

Š 8 Š

Figure 6.3: Shrine 8, Mellaart level EVI: Reconstruction of different phases ofdecoration on the east wall

Figure 7.2: Example of tooth crown with prominent defect and matched defectsbased upon this prominent defect

Figure 7.3: Frequency distribution of enamel defects matched across the incisors per zone Figure 7.4: Frequency distribution of matched enamel defects per tooth type divided into zones Figure 7.5: Box and whisker charts of the percentage of growth affected by defects for individuals buried in history and nonŠhistory houses and in Peak and

PostŠPeak periods

Figure 7.6: Box and whisker charts of the percentage of growth affected by defects

per tooth type for individuals buried in history and nonŠhistory houses andin Peak and PostŠPeak periods

Figure 7.7: Box and whisker charts of the mean duration of and interval between

defects for individuals buried in history and nonŠhistory houses and inPeak and PostŠPeak periods

Figure 7.8: Duration of defects per zone of enamel formation Figure 7.9: Box and whisker charts of the mean interval between defects per tooth type for individuals buried in history and nonŠhistory houses and in Peak and PostŠPeak periods Figure 7.10: Combined mean intervals and durations compared in terms of place of burial, divided into a low degree of disruption, a medium degree of disruption and a high degree of disruption Figure 7.11: Combined mean intervals and durations compared in terms of place of

burial, divided into a low degree of disruption, a medium degree ofdisruption and a high degree of disruption

Figure 7.12: Polynomial regression curves showing relation of dental development

age to the lengths of the radius, width of the upper metaphysis of theulna, length of metatarsal and width of the scapular glenoid

Figure 7.13: Box and whisker plots of residual from curves fitted to measurements ofdiaphyseal lengths of the radius, humerus, ulna and tibia based on

dental development age

Figure 7.14: Box and whisker plots of residual from curves fitted to measurements ofdiaphyseal lengths of the radius, humerus based on predicted mean

dUI1 heights Figure 7.15: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements of widths of upper metaphysis of the ulna, radius and femur and the lower metaphysis of the humerus based on dental development age Figure 7.16: Box and whisker plots of residual from curves fitted to measurements of the width of the upper metaphysis of the ulna and radius based on predicted mean dUI1 heights Figure 7.17: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements

of the height and width of the scapular glenoid and the height and widthof the vertebral dens based on dental development age

Figure 7.18: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements

of the width of the scapular glenoid and the width of the vertebral densbased on predicted mean dUI1 heights

List of Figures

Š 9 Š

Figure 7.19: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurementsof the length of the metarsal, metacarpal and the length and width of the

talus based on dental development age Figure 7.20: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements of the length of the metarsal and metacarpal based on predicted mean dUI1 heights Figure 7.21: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements

of the basilar length, the maximum basilar length, basilar width and themandibular ramus height based on dental development age

Figure 7.22: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurementsof the basilar length and the maximum basilar length based on predicted

mean dUI1 heights Figure 7.23: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements of the metatarsal length, presented per zone of enamel formation Figure 7.24: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurements of the width of the scapular glenoid, presented per zone of enamelformation

Figure 7.25: Box and whisker plots of residuals from curves fitted to measurementsof the width of the upper metaphysis of the ulna, presented per zone of

enamel formation

List of tables

10

Table 2.1: Summary of Mellaart and Hodder levels

Table 3.1: Retzius line periodicity (in days) for Homo Table 4.1: Definition of normal versus hypoplastic teeth Table 5.1: Technical specifications: objective details of Alicona InfiniteFocus

Table 5.2: Percent error calculations

Table 5.3: Visually identified, clearly delineated defects on lower lateral incisors (CH6682) Table 5.4: Metrically identified possible defects on lower left lateral incisor (CH 6682) Table 5.5: Metrically identified possible defects on lower right lateral incisor (CH 6682) Table 5.6: Comparison of outcomes for the detection of clear and subtle defects based on Zscores associated percentiles and LOWESS fitting on lower left and right lateral incisors (CH 6682) Table 5.7: List of skeletal variables (anatomical locations, epiphyses and metaphyses) and measurements Table 5.8: Example of calculations for individualspecific means and standarddeviations Table 5.9: Correlations of deciduous and permanent tooth height measurements (in mm) Table 6.1: Context information and teeth available for each individual included in thedental study Table 6.2: Context information for each individual included in the skeletal study Table 7.2: Example of four matched defects observed on CH 1913 Table 7.3: Overview of metrically detected defects per tooth type Table 7.4: Age profile of enamel defects in total samples and subsets based on place and time of burial (based upon mean number of defects) Table 7.5: Nonparametric significance test (MannWhitney) of enamel frequencybased on individuals Table 7.6: Nonparametric significance test (MannWhitney) of enamel frequency based on tooth typesquotesdbs_dbs21.pdfusesText_27

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