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THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING READING: IMPROVING STUDENTS"READING COMPREHENSION IN EFL CONTEXT EMPHASIZED ONREADING FLUENCY AND ACCURACYMuhammad Rochmanmuhroc@gmail.comABA BalikpapanAbstractCurrent methods for teaching reading comprehension tend to emphasize the products of comprehensionand neglect the processes of comprehension. Teachers often provide insufficient opportunities for learnersto practice English in teaching reading. During teaching reading in a class teachers may confuse to giveexercises relate to fluency or accuracy. The correlation between fluency and reading comprehensionshowed a significantpositive relationship between oral reading fluency and reading comprehensionperformance. Therefore, automaticity of decoding fluency is essential for high levels of readingachievement. Assessing reading fluency, teachers need to listen to students read aloud to make judgmentsabout their progress in reading fluency. In other side, teaching reading in accuracy exercises encourage athoughtful use of language and the information is intended to help students understand how Englishworks.Keywords:reading, fluency, accuracy, and comprehension©Pendidikan Bahasa InggrisFPISH IKIP BU MalangINTRODUCTIONProblems in teaching andlearning English as a Foreign Language(TEFL ) rel at es to both tea chers andlearners. This problem is partly affectedby teachingmethods. Lochana and Deb(2006), they state that most EFL teachersteach language by lecturing and focusingon grammatical rules instead of languageuse. It is much more effective to teachlanguage from context and meaning(Ell is, 2003). Teac hers often provideinsufficient opportunities for learners topractice English. To make the situationworse, both teachers and learnersfrequently use Indonesian languagethroughout English classes.According to Ruso (2007),learners do not like teachers who spendmost of class time lecturing. Lecturingtime de-motivates them because they donot like being passive in class.Consequently, learners have limitedinput to the learning process. Learnersface various additional difficulties inlearning English. Many EFL learnerscannot effectively use English in

conversation or correspondence withothers. According to Xiao (2009), EFLlearners avoid employing targetlanguage and cannot apply it in genuinecommunication. Hashim ( 2006) showsthat learning a language flourishes mostwhen learners are in a positiveenvironment and are given opportunitiesto communicate in authentic situations.Accordingly, it has been suggested thatteachers abandon the traditional teachingapproach and replace it withcommunicative language teaching(Lochana and Deb, 2006).Current methods for teachingreading comprehension tend toemphasize the products ofcomprehension and neglect the processesof comprehension. There are two sets ofskills that are particularly important toteach. The first set includescomprehension monitoring skills thatinvolve readers' monitoring theircontinuing processing for possiblecomprehension failure and takingremedial action when failures occur.Comprehension failures can occur at6

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various levels, including: particularwords, particular sentences, relationsbetween sentences, and relationsbetween larger units. For each kind offailure, there are specific remedialactions readers can take. The second setof processing skills that can be taughtinvolves using clues in the text togenerate, evaluate, and revise hypothesesabout current and future events in thetext. In teaching these processing skills,the teacher should first model theseskills by reading and thinking aloud andthen gradually turn over the processingresponsibilities to the students.As defined by Alyousef (2005)Reading can be seen as an "interactive"process between a reader and a textwhich leads to automaticity or (readingfluency) . In t his proc ess, t he readerinteracts dynamically with the text ashe/she tries to elicit the meaning andwhere various kinds of knowledge arebeing used: linguistic or systemicknowledge (through bottom-upprocessing) as wel l as schematicknowledge (thr ough top-downprocessing).DISCUSSIONThe Importance of Reading FluencyFluent reading comprises threekey elements: accurate reading ofconnected text at a conversational ratewith appropriate prosody or expression( Hudson, Merce r, and Lan e, 2000). Afluent reader can maintain thisperformance for long periods of time,can retain the skill after long periods ofno practice, and can generalize acrosstexts. A fluent reader is also not easilydistracted and reads in an effortless,flowing manner. The most compellingreason to focus instructional efforts onstudents becoming fluent readers is thestrong correlation between readingfluency and reading comprehension(Allington, 1983; Johns, 1993; Samuels,1988; Schreiber, 1980).

Each aspect of fluency has aclear connection to text comprehension.Without accurate word reading, thereader will have no access to the author"sintended meaning, and inaccurate wordreading can lead to misinterpretations ofthe text. Poor automaticity in wordreading or slow, laborious movementthrough the text taxes the reader"scapacity to construct anongoinginterpretation of the text. Poor prosodycan lead to confusion throughinappropriate or meaningless groupingsof words or through inappropriateapplications of expression.Assessing reading fluencyTeachers need to listen to students readaloud tomake judgments about theirprogress in reading fluency (Zutell andRasinski, 1991). Systematic observationhelps assess student progress anddetermine instructional needs. Teachersobserving students" oral reading fluencyshould consider each critical aspect offluent reading: word-reading accuracy,rate, and prosody.Teachers" Transferring Their RolesWith more and more attentionbeing focused on improving students'communicative competence, the rolesteachers have to play must be redefined.The best teachers are usually the oneswho impart an attitude or an orientationrelated to the acquisition of mentalabilities, or who are associated with theparticular values that one findspersonally motivating and inspirational.Specifically speaking, lecturersshouldtake on the following roles in modernEnglish classroom teaching.First, instead of being thedominating authority in the classroom,lecturer must become learningfacilitators to facilitate thecommunicative process between allparticipants in theclassroom andbetween these participants and thevarious activities and texts? (Breen and

7Muhammad Rochman,The Importance of Teaching Reading

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Candlin, 1980) , givi ng guidanc e andadvice when necessary. Lecturer shouldalso act as interdependent participantswithin the learning-teaching group?(Breen and Candlin, 1980), which meansthat Lecturer need to perceive studentsas having important contributions tomake, and then Lecturer mustcontinually seek potential and exploitand actively share the responsibility forlearning and teaching with them.Lecturer must realize that anyunnecessary intervention from us mayprevent them from becoming genuinelyinvolved in the activities and thus hinderthe development of their communicativeskills. However, this does not necessarilymean that lecturer should be passiveobservers. Instead, lecturer shoulddevelop students'potential throughexternal direction and help them developtheir distinctive qualities.Second, just as lecturer wantstudents to be life-long learners, lecturermust exhibit a passion for learning, adesire and an aptitude to continuediscovering new knowledge andexemplify by constantly refreshingeducators" knowledge and skills to keepabreast with the latest developments ineducators" area of specialization.Third, to keep pace with thetimes, lecturers also need to be creativeand innovative in integrating educators"teaching with thinking and learningprocesses. Lecturer must give studentsmore opportunities for expression andprovide an environment where creativitycan flourish. And lecturer mustencourage students to question and toexpress their thoughts freely so that theywill have inquisitive minds.Teachers" Equipping ThemselveswithKnowledge and Appropriate TeachingMethodsLecturers must know somethingabout linguistics, psychology, sociology,anthropology, education and so on, and

be able to demonstrate the targetlanguage with enough accuracy, butlecturer are also expected to know avariety of teaching methodologies,correct ways to research, and some basicprinciples of testing. Lecturer mustrealize that it is obligatory for lecturersto adopt different methods when dealingwith different teaching materials andwhenfaced with students with differentlevels of English proficiency. To achievethe purpose, lecturer must enrichknowledge of English and improveeducators" English skills by variousmeans such as listening to programs inEnglish, watching English programs onTV and surfing the English versions ofvarious news items on the Internetfrequently. In a word, to improvestudents'oral proficiency, lecturer shouldtry every possible means to makeourselves walking encyclopedias so thatlecturer can teach any studentanythingwith skill and ease.Attaching Equal Importance to BothAccuracy and Fluency ExercisesAs is mentioned above, accuracyand fluency are so closely related thatthey are inseparable. Skehan (1998)proposed that because learners have alimited capacity of attention, there couldbe trade-off effects between accuracyand fluency. That is, when attention ispaid to accuracy, fluency is likely tosuffer and vice versa? (Patanasorn,2010). So attaching equal importance toboth accuracy and fluency exercises is amust.Accuracy exercises encourage athoughtful use of language and theinformation is intended to help studentsunderstand how English works, whilefluency exercises invite them to take theparts of different characters when role-playing and tocontinue a dialogue intheir own way, that is, the fluencyexercises encourage free expression.Doing accuracy exercises does not mean

8Journal of English Language and Pedagogy (JOURNEY)(2018), 1 (1):6-14

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100% error-free, but a high degree ofaccuracy is required, and as a result,students are encouraged to make as fewerrors as possible and to manipulate thelanguage as spontaneously and flexiblyas possible.But when assigning accuracy andfluency exercises, lecturer had betterkeep in mind the following: For onething, lecturer had better assign exercisesthat need the knowledge with whichstudents are familiar, because it is foundthat the personal task which is based oninformation well known to learnersallows them to be more fluent in theirperformance.For another, lecturer had bettergive students more planning time. Withregards to planning, it has beensuggested that providing learners withmore planning time prior to conductingthe task helps learners produce morefluent and complex language(Patanasorn, 2010). Generally, the moreplanning time they are given, the morefamiliar they will be with the inherentstructure of discourse and as a result, themore accurate and fluent they will be intheir performance, because familiaritywith content and opportunity to planhelp lessen the load of informationprocessing which allows learners moreintentional resources to focus on formalaspects of language aswell as help themto become more fluent in theirperformance (Patanasorn, 2010).FluencyThe two definitions of fluency byFillmore (1979) are taken into account,which are:1."The ability to talk in coherent,reasoned and semantically densesentences, showing a masteryof the semantic (meaning inlanguage) a nd syntacticresources of the language"; and

2."The ability to have appropriatethings to say in a wide range ofcontexts, so that you do notbecome tongue tied or lost forwords" ( as cited in Brumfit,1984).In other words, fluency is aboutcoherence and context sensitivity inutterances. In this study, the fluencyof spoken English in the simulatedrole play situations which involvesocial interactions between twointerlocutors is measured. The fluencylevel is measured using hesitation. Thisis because hesitation is one of the criteriaconsidered in determining fluency inmajor standardized test such as Test ofEnglish as a Foreign Language(TOEFL ), Internat ional EnglishLanguage.How Do Teachers Measure Fluency?The easiest way to measurefluency in most skills is to select arepeatable action such as saying a wordor writing the answer to a math problem,and to count how many times a personcan complete that actionin a fixedperiod of time. An educationalmethodology known as PrecisionTeaching (Binde r, 198 8; Binde r andWatkins, 1990) has identified ranges ofcount per minute performance describingfluency for hundreds of academic skills.By specifying a range of count perminute of correct responses on specifictypes of materials and procedures, it ispossible to set goals for practice thathelp both teachers and learners maketimely decisions to change or modifyeducational programs with individuallearners.Achievement Gains from BuildingFluencyWhen lecturer pinpoint keyskills, set fluency aims for each, andcombine teaching and practice withmeasurement to help students achieve

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those aims, educational programs(whethe r school-based or home-based)often producedramatic improvements inacademic achievement. In an earlydemonstration program during the1970"s (Beck, 1979), adding just 20 to30 minutes per day of practice,measurement, and charting of basic skillcomponents to an otherwise ordinaryelementary school curriculum increasedchildren"s standard test scores by 20 to40 percentile points, compared withother students in the same district. Morerecently, fluency-based instructionalprograms have reliably producedmultiple grade levels of improvement ina summer program among studentsdiagnosed with "learning problems"(Johnson and Layng, 1992). In addition,fluency-based programs have markedlyimproved students" ability to maintainattention to task while working on avariety of different activities (Binder,Haughton, and Van Eyk, 1990).Selected Fluency RangesPeople generally specify fluencyranges of count per minute performanceto account for individual differences andto recognize the fact that fluency for aparticular skill is not a single, preciselydefined level but a band on the spectrumof all possibleperformance levels withinwhich most learners seem to retain andmaintain skills, perform over extendeddurations without undue distractibility,and apply what they learn to morecomplex types of performance. This isnot an exact science, and there aredifferences in opinion amongpractitioners about what levels areabsolutely necessary for optimal results.On the other hand, most practitionerswho are experienced with measuringcount per minute performance canconfidently report levels that are notsufficient to support optimalperformance, whether or not they agree

on the exact parameters of specificfluency ranges.How Can Educator Help Students toAchieve Fluency?Practice is the key to anyfluency-based program. Athletes andperforming artists have always beenaware that focused repetition ofimportant skills is the necessaryprerequisite for achieving greatperformance. Sad to say, however, manyeducators may notrealize this basicprinciple of skill development. Even forthose who understand the value ofpractice, it is important to focus on theright kind of practice to produce thegreatest gains rather than on practiceroutines that are boring, painful, andultimately ineffective. Some of theimportant differences between effectiveand ineffective practice programsinclude the following: Efficient practicealways has a goal. Athletes are alwaysstriving to achieve goals, oftenmotivated by attaining their "personalbest" performances. Similarly, studentswho have count per minute goals forreading, writing, math, and other typesof skills are generally more motivatedthan those told simply to "practice untilyou get better."It is easier to attain fluency onsmall, achievable"chunks" orcomponents of a larger performance thanto attain mastery of the whole thing atonce. This is perhaps the most importantdiscovery of fluency-based educators(e. g., Starl in, 1971: Haught on, 1972).When students lack fluency in writingletters and digits, decoding words,saying vowel sounds, or calculatinganswers to basic arithmetic problems,they often have great difficultycombining those skills into largerchunks. One of the most important waysto achieve fluency on anything is to finda way to practice and first master itssmaller elements.

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Correlation of reading fluency andreading comprehensionThe correlation between fluencyand reading comprehension was clearlyestablished by a large-scale analysis ofdata from the National Assessment ofEducational Progress in Reading(Pinnell, et al., 1995). In that study, 44percent of the subjects were found to bediffluent when reading grade-levelappropriate materials that they hadpreviously read silently; the study alsoshowed a significant, positiverelationship between oral readingfluency and reading comprehensionperformance. A comprehensivedefinition then would seem to relate thecentrality of fluency to readingcomprehension and the establisheddimensions of the construct.Modeled ReadingOne way to enhance fluency isfor teachers to read aloud to students(Dowhowe r, 1987; Hoffm an, 1987;Smith, 1979) . T he proc ess of readingaloud to students needs to besupplementedwith procedures whichactually engage students in interactionwith text, but reading aloud does providethem with a model of how to pacereading in connected text and how toinfuse expression (att end to dialoguemarks and punctuation) . Tape d orcomputer modeled reading is also aviable way to provide fluency support.However, for younger and less ablereaders taped or computer modeledreading seems more effective than nomodel, but not as effective as a teachermodel (Dal y and Mart ens, 1994). Forlower performing readers, an additionalbenefit of having text re a d initially by amodel improved comprehension. Itseems that the reading model allowedstudents to focus on the content of thepassage initially before they read itindependently ( Monda, 1989). While itvaries from study to study whether

students followed along in copies of thetexts, experts recommend this as a wayto engage children in the text prior totheir reading it independently.Repeated Reading of Familiar TextRereading text or repeated oralreading is perhaps the most frequentlydocumented approach to improvingfluency (National Reading Panel, 2000;Rashotte and Torgesen, 1985) and hasbeen associated with improved outcomesfor young students (O"She a, Sindelar,and O"Shea, 1987) as well as collegestudents (Carve r and Hoffm an, 1981).Generally, intervention research onfluency development has beendominated by research on repeatedreading. This likely reflects theapplication of the theory that fluentreading is promoted by frequentopportunities to practice in familiar textand to increased exposure to words.Wide Independent ReadingResearch does not yet clearlyindicate whether repeated reading issuperior to wide, sustained reading ofdifferent texts. Currently, it seems thatfor more able readers, repeated readingof the same texts is not as necessary as itis for struggling readers and thatincreasing the amount of reading that isdone is sufficiently, and perhaps more,beneficial (Hom an, Kle sius, and Hite,1993; Mathes and Fuchs, 1993; Rashotteand Torgesen, 1985) . T he beneficialeffects of wide reading were somewhatcalled into question by the fairly recentReport of the National Reading Panel(2000) which concluded: "Based on theexisting evidence, the NRP can onlyindicate that while encouraging studentsto read might be beneficial, research hasnot yet demonstrated this in a clear andconvincing manner".Coached or Assisted Reading

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Heibert and Fisher (2002) studiedfluency development as it relates to thefeatures of the texts used for promotingfluency.Specifically, they wereinterested in examining the effects oftexts in which particular text dimensionsor features were carefully controlled.The treatment texts Heibert and Fisherdesigned were characterized as havingthe following key features: a smallnumber of unique word s, a highpercentage of most frequently usedwords, and often repeated critical words(those words that influence the meaningof the text most) . Stude nts in thecomparison group read from textstypically associated with commercialreading programs. Using a repeatedreading (thre e time s) instructionalroutine in a nine-week intervention,students reading in the treatment textsmade significant gains in fluency overtheir peers in the comparison condition.There also seemed to be an effect forcomprehension for second languagelearners. These findings suggest that thefeatures of the texts being used topromote fluency should be carefullyconsidered.Chunking TextsAnother approach to fluencybuilding is to provide struggling readerswith text in which meaningful groups orwords or phrases are signaled for thereader as a means of improving fluencyand comprehension (Crome r, 1970;Young and Bowers, 1995) . Researchreveals that different amounts of text presented in repeated reading do not seemto change the outcome. However, controlof the amount of text presented may bebeneficial for students who areexperiencing difficulty with readingaccuracy as it may force them to focuson the words for a longer period of time(C ohen, 1988) . Car bo (1981 ) used aphrased or chunked approach to assistedrepeated reading. She had students listen

to tapes and follow along in books inwhich the text was chunked into shortphrases. Carbo reported significant gainsin word recognition ability suggestingthat this approach might be helpful forimproving accuracy. Several researchershave studied the effects of parsing orchunking texts into phrase units. Whilemost of these studies have been witholder students, Kuhn and Stahl (2000)reported that reading phrase units ratherthan conventional text does seem toresult in improved fluency.Word Reading PracticeBased on Ehri"s stage model ofreading and previously offeredtheoretical descriptions of fluency, theimportance of individual word readingautomaticity would seem to havepractical implications for fluencybuilding. Studies in which teachers hadstudents practice reading lists of wordsthat they were to later encounter inconnected texts consistently resulted inincreased fluency (Fleisher, Jenkins, andPany, 1979-80; Levy, Abello, andLysynchuk, 1997) . I t is importa nt tonote, however, that there was noconcomitant increase in comprehension.CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, with people'sattention being focused more and moreon the oral proficiencyof Englishlearners, teachers have realized theurgency of shifting their emphasis fromform to use and communicative languageprinciples are subscribed to. But thereality is that linguistic competencecontinues to be emphasized while thereis no corresponding change in theclassroom teaching modes and teachingmethods. Hence, what educators shoulddo now is conscientiously try to shifteducators" attention from emphasizingthe accuracy of students'oralpresentation to developing their ability toexpressthemselves both accurately and

12Journal of English Language and Pedagogy (JOURNEY)(2018), 1 (1):6-14

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fluently in English, for which educatorscan employ various means such ascombining grammar-translation methodand communicative approach,transferring teachers'roles, and attachingequal importance to both accuracy andfluency exercises.ReferencesAllington, R.L. 1983.Fluency: Theneglected reading goal.TheReading Teacher, 36, 556-561.Alyousef , H.S. 2005.Teaching ReadingComprehension To ESL/EFLLearner.Hesham SuleimanAlyousef.thearabknight@gmail.com. TheReading Matrix Vol. 5, No. 2,September 2005.Binder, C., and Watkins, C. L. 1990.Precision teaching and directinstruction: Measurably superiorinstructional technology inschools. PerformanceImprovement Quarterly, 3(4), 74-96.Breen, M. and C. Candlin. 1980.Theessentials of a communicativecurriculum for languageteaching. Applied Linguistics 1:89?112.Brumfit, C. J. 1984.CommunicativeMethodologyin LanguageTeaching,Cambridge,Cambridge University Press.Byrne, Donn. 1991.Teaching WritingSkills.Essex: Longman GroupUK Limited, 1991.Clay, M.M. 1984.Observing the youngreader. Auckland, New Zealand:Heinemann.

Clay, M.M. 1993.Reading Recovery: Aguidebook for teachers intraining. Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.Davies, A. 2003.The native speaker:myth and reality. ArticleinLanguage Testing21(2):245-248·April 2003.Dowhower, S.L. 1987.Effects ofrepeated reading on second-gradetransitional readers"fluency and comprehension.Reading Research Quarterly, 22,389-406.Ehri, L.C., and McCormick, S. 1998.Phases of word learning:Implications for instruction withdelayed and disabled readers.Reading and Writing Quarterly:Overcoming LearningDifficulties, 14(2), 135-164.Gao, C. 2001.Second language learningand the teaching of grammar.Education, 122, 326-337.Haughton, E. C. 1972.Aims: Growingand sharing.In J. B. Jordan andL. S. Robbins (E ds.), L et's trydoing something else kind ofthing (20-39) . Arling ton, VA:Council on Exceptional Children.Hashim, F. 2006.Language Immersionfor Low Proficiency ESLLearners: The ALEMAC Project.The Reading Matrix.Vol. 6.Hudson, R.F., Mercer, C.D., and Lane,H.B. 2000.Exploring readingfluency: A paradigmaticoverview. Unpublishedmanuscript, University ofFlorida, Gainesville.

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Johnson, K. R., and Layng, T V. J. 1992.Breaking the structuralistbarrier: Literacy and numeracywith fluency. AmericanPsychologist, 47, 1475-1490.Kuhn, M.R., and Stahl, S.A. 2000.Fluency: A review ofdevelopmental and remedialpractices. Ann Arbor, MI: Centerfor the Improvement of EarlyReading Achievement.Lee, C.S. 2008.Accuracy and FluencySpoken English Among the ESLLearners in Tertiary Institution.Faculty of Cognitive Sciencesand Human Development.Universiti of Sarawak.Lochana and Deb. 2006.TaskBasedTeaching: Learning Englishwithout Tears. Dr. MeenaLochana and Dr. Gitoshree DebLanguage Centre, Sultan QaboosUniversity, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman. The Asian EFL JournalQuarterly September 2006Volume 8, Issue 3 SpecialConference Proceedings Volume:Task-based Learning in the AsianContext.Patanasorn C.2010.Effect of proceduralcontent and task repetition onaccuracy and fluency in an EFLcontext.Unpublished doctoraldissertation,Northern ArizonaUniversity,AZ, USA. ,GoogleScholar.Rashotte, C. A., and Torgesen, J. K.1985.Repeated reading andreading fluency in learningdisabled children. Reading.Research Quarterly, 20( 2), 180-188.

Reitsma, P. 1983.Printed word learningin beginning readers. Journal ofExperimental ChildPsychology,36(2), 321-339.Ruso, N. 2007.The Influence of TaskBased Learning on EFLClassrooms.Nazenin Ruso.Eastern MediterraneanUniversity Turkish Republic ofNorthern Cyprus. Retrieved fromhttp://www.asian-efl-journal.com/pta_February_2007_tr.pdfSkehan, P. 1998.A cognitive approachto language learning. Oxford:Oxford University Press.Stanovich, K.E. 1986.Cognitiveprocesses and the readingproblems of learning disabledchildren: Evaluating theassumption of specificity. In J.Torgesen and B. Wong (Eds.),Psychological and educationalperspectives on learningdisabilities ( pp. 87-131) . NewYork: Academic Press.Xiao, L. X. 2009.A new paradigm ofteaching English in China: AnEclectic Model. The Asian EFLJournal, 8(4)

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