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Right-wing

extremism in the EU Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs

Directorate

-General for Internal Policies

PE 700.953 - May 2022

EN Study

Requested by the

LIBE committee

Abstract

This study, commissioned by the European Parliament's Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the LIBE Committee, provides a discussion on the distinctive features of right -wing extremism as well as of violent actions perpetrated by right-wing extremists in the EU. It gives an overview and analysis of definitions, recent trends and responses to these actions and concludes with recommendations. In particular, the study highlights the need to develop a working definition of right wing-extremism in order to provide a better framework for understanding, studying and measuring the phenomenon.

Right-wing

extremism in the EU This document was requested by the European Parliament's Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and

Home Affairs.

AUTHORS

Quentin LIGER,

Asterisk Research and Analysis

Mirja GUTHEIL, Asterisk Research and Analysis

With the support of Dr Mois

FAION (CSD), Rositsa DZHEKOVA (CSD), Nadya STOYANOVA (CSD), Mariyan SABEV (CSD), Stefan RALCHEV (CSD), and Dr Tommaso COMUNALE (CSD).

ADMINISTRATOR RESPONSIBLE

Mariusz MACIEJEWSKI

EDITORIAL ASSISTANTS

Christina KATSARA

Ginka TSONEVA

LINGUISTIC VERSIONS

Original: EN

ABOUT THE EDITOR

Policy departments provide in

-house and external expertise to support EP committees and other parliamentary bodies in shaping legislation and exercising democratic scrutiny over EU internal policies.

To contact

the Policy Department or to subscribe for updates, please write to: Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs

European Parliament

B-1047 Brussels

Email: poldep-citizens@europarl.europa.eu

Manuscript completed in

May 2022

© European Union, 2022

This document is available on the internet at:

DISCLAIMER AND COPYRIGHT

The opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the European Parliament.

Reproduction and translation for non

-commercial purposes are authorised, provided the source is acknowledged and the European Parliament is given prior notice and sent a copy.

© Cover image used under

licence from Adobe Stock.com

Right-wing extremism in the EU

PE 700.953 3

CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 6

LIST OF BOXES 9

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF TABLES 9

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11

Definition 11

Trends 12

Legal response 13

Recommendation

s 14

1. INTRODUCTION 17

1.1. Structure of the report 17

1.2. Scope of the study 17

2. DEFINING RIGHT-WING EXTREMISM 18

2.1. Methodological challenges 18

2.2. Existing definitions 23

2.3. Working definition 26

3. TRENDS OF RIGHT-WING EXTREMISM 28

3.1. Bulgaria 31

3.2. France 34

3.3. Germany 38

3.4. Hungary 44

3.5. Italy 47

3.6. Poland 49

3.7. Sweden 52

3.8. Conclusions 54

4. LEGAL SITUATION IN MEMBER STATES 56

4.1. Bulgaria 57

4.2. France 60

4.3. Germany 62

4.4. Hungary 68

4.5. Italy 70

4.6. Poland 73

IPOL | Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs

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4.7. Sweden 75

4.8. Conclusions 77

4.9. Effectiveness of the Member State response 79

5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND FOLLOW-UP 94

5.1. Recommendations 94

5.2. Suggestions for implementation of the recommendations 96

6. COUNTRY FICHE - BULGARIA 99

6.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism 99

6.2. Legal framework 101

6.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 103

6.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 104

6.5. Conclusion 107

7. COUNTRY FICHE - FRANCE 108

7.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism in the country 108

7.2. Legal framework 112

7.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 114

7.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 114

7.5. Conclusion 116

8. COUNTRY FICHE - GERMANY 117

8.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism 117

8.2. Legal framework 122

8.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 126

8.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 128

8.5. Conclusion 130

9. COUNTRY FICHE - HUNGARY 131

9.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism in the country 131

9.2. Legal framework 134

9.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 135

9.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 136

9.5. Conclusion 137

10. COUNTRY FICHE - ITALY 139

10.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism in the country 139

10.2. Legal framework 141

10.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 143

Right-wing extremism in the EU

PE 700.953 5

10.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 144

10.5. Conclusion 146

11. COUNTRY FICHE - POLAND 147

11.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism in the country 147

11.2. Legal framework 149

11.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 150

11.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 151

11.5. Conclusion 153

12. COUNTRY FICHE - SWEDEN 154

12.1. Distinctive features of right-wing extremism in the country 154

12.2. Legal framework 156

12.3. Other responses to right-wing extremism 158

12.4. Effectiveness of the response to right-wing extremism 158

12.5. Conclusion 160

REFERENCES 161

General sources 161

Press articles 164

Other online sources 167

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AfD Alternative für Deutschland (Alternative for Germany) - DE AFO Action des forces opérationnelles (Action of Operational Forces) - FR CDU Christlich Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union) - DE

CEE Central and Eastern Europe

CGIL Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro (Italian General Confederation of

Labour) - IT

CNCDH Commission Nationale Consultative des Droits de l'Homme (National Consultative

Commission on Human Rights) - FR

CoE Council of Europe

CSD Centre for the Study of Democracy - BG

ECRI Council of Europe's European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance

ECtHR European Court of Human Rights

ENAR European Network Against Racism

EU European Union

FCC Federal Constitutional Court -DE

FN Front National (National Front) - FR

FPN Focal Points Network

FPR Fichier des Personnes Recherchées - FR

FRA European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights

GUD Groupe Union Défense - FR

Crimes) - HU

IHRA International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance

Right-wing extremism in the EU

PE 700.953 7

JA Junge Alternative (Youth Alternative) - DE

LGBTQ+ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex and other

LNPLE Law on Non-Profit Legal Entities (BG)

LPR Liga Polskich Rodzin (League of Polish Families) - PL MW Młodzież Wszechpolska (All-Polish Youth) - PL

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

Assessment) - SE

NPD Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (National Democratic Party) - DE

NHRI National Human Right Institution

NOP Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski (National Revival of Poland) - PL NSU Nationalsozialistischer Untergrund (National Socialist Underground) - DE OAS Organsiation Armée Secrète (Organisation Secret Army) - FR ODIHR Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) ONR Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny (National Radical Camp) - PL OSCAD Osservatorio per la Sicurezza Contro gli Atti Discriminatori (Observatory for Security

Against Discriminatory Acts) - IT

OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe PiS Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (Law and Justice) - PL

RAN Radicalisation Awareness Network

RN Rassemblement National (National Rally) - FR

RN Ruch Narodowy (National Movement) - PL

RTV Right-wing terrorism and violence

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TASZ Társaság a Szabadságjogokért (Hungarian Civil Liberties Union) - HU TE-SAT European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union UNAR Ufficio Nazionale Antidiscriminazioni Razziali (National Office Against Racial

Discrimination

) - IT

Right-wing extremism in the EU

PE 700.953 9

LIST OF BOXES

Box 1: Terms and definitions used on the far-right spectrum 19

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Spectrum of ideologies from nationalism to right-wing extremism 11

Figure 2: Spectrum of ideologies 19

Figure 3: Right wing terrorist attacks and arrests in the EEU (2015-2020) 29 Figure 4: Opinion on democracy and need for opposition parties to operate freely 30 Figure 5: Share of population with an unfavourable opinion of Muslims (general population and supporters of right -wing populist parties) 31

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Percentage of positive answers to the question "Would you be willing for .... to live in your

neighbourhood?" 33 Table 2: Number of right-wing extremist crimes - Germany 41 Table 3: Main right-wing organisations in Sweden 54 Table 4: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - BG 81 Table 5: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - FR 83 Table 6: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - DE 84 Table 7: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - HU 86 Table 8: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - IT 88 Table 9: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - PL 89 Table 10: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - SE 90 Table 11: Proposed monitoring systems and indicators 97

Table 12: Percentage of positive answers to the question "Would you be willing for .... to live in your

neighbourhood?" 100 Table 13: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - BG 106 Table 14: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - FR 115 Table 15: Number of right-wing extremist crimes - Germany 120 Table 16: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - DE 129 Table 17: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - HU 136 Table 18: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - IT 145 Table 19: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - PL 152 Table 20: Main right-wing organisations in Sweden 156 IPOL | Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs

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Table 21: Recorded and prosecuted hate crimes and sentences - SE 159

Right-wing extremism in the EU

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This study provides a

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