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Khan Academy as Supplemental Instruction: A Controlled Study of a International Review of Research in Open and Mistributed Learning

Volume 18H Number 4

June ² 2017

Maniel P. Oelly anT Teomara RuWUerforT

NC State University

Abstract

Khan Academy is a large and popular open educational resource (ONR) wiWU liWWle empirical VWuTy inWo iWV

impacW on VWuTenW acUievemenW in maWUemaWicV wUen uVeT in VcUoolV. In WUiV VWuTyH we examineT WUe uVe

of OUan AcaTemy aV a maWUemaWicV inWervenWion among VevenWU graTe VWuTenWV over a 4-week perioT verVuV

a conWrol group. Pe alVo compareT TifferenceV beWween VWuTenWV wUo UaT VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV

inVWrucWion anT WUoVe wUo UaT noW. In boWU caVeVH we founT no VWaWiVWically VignificanW TifferenceV in VWuTenW

WeVW VcoreV. OUan AcaTemy UaV Veveral inWernal meWricV uVeT Wo Wrack VWuTenW performance anT uVe. Pe

founT VignificanW relaWionVUipV beWween WUeVe meWricV anT VWuTenW WeVW VcoreV in WUiV VWuTy. OUan AcaTemy

anT oWUer ONR proviTe acceVV Wo informaWion anT knowleTge Wo large numberV of WUe populaWion. TUiV reVearcU aTTV Wo WUe TiVcourVe meWUoTV by wUicU OUan AcaTemy anT oWUer ONR may affecW learnerV. KeywordsJ OUan AcaTemyH maWUemaWicV eTucaWionH open eTucaWional reVourceVH VupplemenWal inVWrucWion

Introduction

Open educational resources (ONR) repreVenW a broaT VwaWU of online maWerialV WUaW reViTe in WUe public

incluTe online courVeV VucU aV maVVive open online courVeV (ÓOOCV)H viTeo-baVeT inVWrucWionH WexWbookVH

or any reVource WUaW VupporWV acceVV Wo knowleTge. IW iV clear WUaW large numberV are uVing ONRH anTH

alWUougU iW iV TifficulW Wo pinpoinW exacW numberVH meWricV from Vome of WUe larger TiVWribuWorV are available.

offerV free online courVeV from many Wop univerViWieVH UaV over 13 million regiVWereT uVerV (PeilanTH 2015).

AV of 2014H WUe online maWU learning reVource OUan AcaTemy UaT more WUan 10 million unique uVerV per

monWU anT waV projecWeT Wo Uave greaWer WUan 12 million per monWU in 2016 (ÓurpUyH GallagUerH OrummH

Oelly anT RuWUerforT

Mislevy, & Hafter, 2014). InformaWion on acceVV anT uVe of ONR iV largely TepenTenW on web analyWicV VucU

aV unique webViWe viViWorVH TownloaTVH anT number of viewV. TUe poWenWial for unWrackeT re-TiVWribuWion

makeV WUe full exWenW of ONR uVe even more TifficulW Wo appreciaWe. IW iV clear from WUe reporWeT number of

viViWorV anT uVerV WUaW ONR uVe anT acceVV numberV in WUe UunTreTV of millionV. TUe currenW VWuTy focuVeV on WUe ONR OUan AcaTemyH wUicU NRMVPV ³$ IUHH RRUOG-claVV eTucaWion for

VWuTenWV (OUan AcaTemyH 2015). AlWUougU OUan AcaTemy UaV iWV rooWV in maWUemaWicV inVWrucWionH iW UaV

expanTeT Wo cover WopicV VucU aV VcienceH UiVWoryH anT economicV. TUe leVVonV proviTe viTeo-baVeT lecWure

anT problemV for VWuTenWV Wo Volve WUaW coinciTe wiWU WUoVe viTeoV. ParWicipanWV are rewarTeT wiWU poinWV

anT baTgeV WUaW Verve Wo proviTe poViWive reinforcemenW anT encouragemenW aV WUey work WUrougU eacU

leVVon. SWuTenW acquiViWion of WUeVe TigiWal baTgeV in oWUer programV UaV been VUown Wo moWivaWe VWuTenWV

WowarTV knowleTge anT Vkill TevelopmenW (GibVonH OVWaVUewVkiH ŃlinWoffH GranWH F OnigUWH 2015). TUompVonH 2011)H liWWle empirical reVearcU regarTing Uow WUe uVe of OUan AcaTemy relaWeV Wo VWuTenW

learning gainV exiVWV in WUe exWanW liWeraWure. TUe exiVWing reVearcU on OUan AcaTemy focuVeV on

explanaWionV of implemenWaWion anT correlaWionV wiWU uVe. Ńor exampleH ÓurpUy anT colleagueV (2014)

examineT VWuTenW anT WeacUer percepWion of OUan AcaTemyH WUeir maWUemaWicV aWWiWuTeVH anT VWuTenW WeVW

VcoreV in a VWuTy of OUan AcaTemy implemenWeT aV parW of WUe maWU claVVeV in nine VcUoolV. UVe of OUan

AcaTemy waV poViWively aVVociaWeT wiWU a reTucWion in maWU anxieWy anT improveT maWU Velf-beliefV among

WUe VWuTenWV in WUe VWuTy. AlWUougU WUe VWuTy focuVeT on Uow OUan AcaTemy waV implemenWeT in WUe VcUoolVH WUe auWUorV TiT noWe WUaW more OUan AcaTemy uVe waV aVVociaWeT wiWU poViWive acUievemenW

ouWcomeV. TUeVe claimV were merely exploraWory given WUe naWure of WUe VWuTy²investigation into

volunWarily implemenWing VcUoolV. In a TifferenW VWuTyH LigUW anT PierVon (2014) examineT OUan AcaTemy

in CUilean VcUoolV WUrougU qualiWaWive TaWa collecWion anT analyViV. TUeir focuV waV on uVe anT VWuTenW anT

WeacUer percepWionV buW TiT noW aTTreVV VWuTenW acUievemenW. TUey reporWeT WUaW aTminiVWraWorV anT

WeacUerV felW OUan AcaTemy waV uVeful in improving proceTural VkillVH buW WUaW face-Wo-face VWuTenW-WeacUer

inWeracWion waV WUe beVW moTe for TifficulW concepWV anT promoWing a Teeper unTerVWanTing of maWUemaWicV.

One VWuTy in SouWU Africa reporWeT an increaVe in VWuTenW learning wUen OUan AcaTemy anT oWUer

compuWer aVViVWeT learning waV incluTeT in inVWrucWion; UoweverH OUan AcaTemy waV uVeT aV parW of an

VWuTy wUeWUer iW waV OUan AcaTemy or WUe aTTiWional inVWrucWional reVourceV anT Wime WUaW accounWeT for

WUe increaVe in VWuTenW ouWcomeV.

Purpose

TUiV VWuTy VeekV Wo examine WUe impacW of OUan AcaTemy on VWuTenW maWUemaWicV unTerVWanTing. TUe VWuTy alVo VeekV Wo aTT Wo WUe TiVcourVe regarTing wUeWUer anT Uow OUan AcaTemy anT Vimilar proTucWV

can be uVeT Wo VupplemenW or VupplanW inVWrucWion in O-12 claVVroomV. SupplemenWal inVWrucWionH or

inVWrucWion proviTeT in aTTiWion Wo regular claVVworkH UaV been VUown Wo increaVe graTeVH maWerial

reWenWionH anT moWivaWion (ColeWWiH PiVniewVkiH SUapiroH F MiÓillaH 2014). TUere iV alVo eviTence WUaW

eTucaWional WecUnology applicaWionV in maWUemaWicV can proTuce poViWive effecWV on VWuTenW acUievemenW

Oelly anT RuWUerforT

(Cheung & Slavin, 2013). To inveVWigaWe poWenWial effecWV of OUan AcaTemy wUen uVeT aV an eTucaWional

Wool for VupplemenWal inVWrucWion we aVkeT WUe following queVWionVJ

1. What differences in scores on a standardized assessment exist among students who received

WeacUer-leT VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV inVWrucWionH uVeT OUan AcaTemy aV VupplemenWal inVWrucWionH anT WUoVe VWuTenWV wUo receiveT no VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV inVWrucWion?

2. Are WUe inWernal meWricV WrackeT anT reporWeT wiWUin OUan AcaTemy (e.g.H Wime VpenWH poinWV earneTH

WopicV maVWereT) aVVociaWeT wiWU VWuTenW ouWcomeV?

Method

Context

The lead author waV originally UireT in WUe VcUool TiVcuVVeT in WUiV VWuTy aV a WecUnology eTucaWion WeacUer

wUoVe reVponVibiliWieV incluTeT WUe WeacUing of maWU enricUmenW claVVeV TeWaileT below. AV parW of WUe claVVH

Ue incluTeT WUe regular uVe of OUan AcaTemy anT receiveT poViWive feeTback from WUe VWuTenWVH

aTminiVWraWionH anT parenWV. In orTer Wo TeWermine WUe efficacy of UiV TeciVion Wo uVe OUan AcaTemy anT

TeWermine if OUan AcaTemy waV an effecWive meanV of VupplemenWal inVWrucWion. TUe reVulWV of WUaW

compariVon VUoweT no VWaWiVWically VignificanW TifferenceV beWween VWuTenWV uVing OUan AcaTemyH VWuTenWV

in oWUer maWU enricUmenW claVVeVH anT WUoVe in NngliVU language arWV (NLA) enricUmenW claVVeV. In aVVeVVing

number of VWuTenWV wiWU courVe graTeV aW or above 100%.

Mue Wo WUe poWenWial ceiling effecWV of WUe previouVly-uVeT meaVureH WUe leaT auWUor TeVigneT a VWuTy wiWU

WUe expliciW inWenW of inveVWigaWing WUe aVVociaWion beWween OUan AcaTemy uVe anT an aVVeVVmenW WUaW woulT

reVulW in more normally TiVWribuWeT VcoreV VuiWable for VWaWiVWical analyViV. To avoiT oWUer confounTVH WUe

leaT auWUor alVo enVureT WUaW all VWuTenWV wiWUin WUe VWuTy receiveT WUeir main maWU inVWrucWion from WUe

Vame WeacUerH none of WUe conWrol groupV were uVing OUan AcaTemy aV VupplemenWal inVWrucWionH anT WUe

acceVV Wo anT acWiviWieV wiWUin OUan AcaTemy were moniWoreT.

TUe TaWa uVeT in WUiV VWuTy were collecWeT prior Wo WUe leaT auWUor being affiliaWeT wiWU a univerViWy anT were

VWuTenW TaWa reporWeT UereinH anT exempW VWaWuV waV obWaineT reWroacWively.

Participants and Setting

This study was conducted in a large suburban charter school in NorWU Carolina anT conViVWeT of 114 WoWal

parWicipanWV in WUree groupV. SWuTenWV aW WUe VcUool UaT above average VcoreV on VWanTarTiYeTH VWaWe-wiTeH

enT-of-graTe maWUemaWicV aVVeVVmenWV wUen compareT Wo boWU WUe VWaWe anT WUe counWy in wUicU iW

Oelly anT RuWUerforT

All of these VWuTenWV receiveT maWUemaWicV inVWrucWion from WUe Vame WeacUer. TUe Vample incluTeT

VWuTenWV iTenWifieT aV gifWeTIWalenWeT anTIor aV Vpecial eTucaWion VWuTenWV aV long aV WUey parWicipaWeT in

WUe general maWUemaWicV claVV.

ÓaWU enricUmenW claVVeV were for general VupplemenWal maWU inVWrucWion anT noW planneT in collaboraWion

wiWU WUe maWU WeacUer. SWuTenWV were aVVigneT WUeir enricUmenW claVV baVeT on WUeir elecWive courVe

VcUeTule anT noW on WUeir maWU claVV or abiliWy anT alWernaWeT beWween maWU anT NLA enricUmenW on a

quarWerly baViV. In WUiV reVpecWH alWUougU WUe TiVWribuWion of VWuTenWV acroVV WreaWmenW anT conWrol groupV

iV far from ranTomH WUere iV liWWle reaVon Wo believe iW iV relaWeT Wo VWuTenW acUievemenW.

Design

A post-WeVW only conWrol-group quaVi-experimenWal TeVign waV cUoVen for WUiV VWuTy Tue Wo facWorV relaWeT

Wo convenience anT acceVVibiliWy. ClaVVeV of VWuTenWV were VelecWeT for conWrol (n=75H boWU maWU anT NLA

enricUmenW courVeV) anT WreaWmenW (n=39) groupV baVeT on wUeWUer WUe claVVeV were WaugUW by WUe leaT auWUor.

Procedure

Students in the treatment group worked with Khan Academy for a minimum of 30 minutes per class over a

four-week perioT. TUiV Wime waV WrackeT by WUe leaT auWUorIclaVVroom WeacUer anT waV uVeT aV WUeir Taily

³SMUPLŃLSMPLRQ´ JUMGH IRU POH ŃOMVVB 6PXGHQPV RHUH QRP JLYHQ VSHŃLILŃ PRSLŃV PR RRUN RQ RLPOLQ .OMQ $ŃMGHP\B

This was inWenWional anT meanW Wo VimulaWe WUe Wypical uVe of OUan AcaTemy aV a Velf-paceT anT Velf- TirecWeT VupplemenW Wo claVVroom maWUemaWicV inVWrucWion by VWuTenWV working from Uome.

TiVcreWion. TeacUerV of conWrol group claVVeV were aVkeT noW Wo expoVe WUeir VWuTenWV Wo OUan AcaTemy or

any oWUer compuWer-baVeT inWervenWionV.

MeasureV

Math performance. At the end of the four-week perioTH all VWuTenWV (conWrol anT WreaWmenW) were given a common aVVeVVmenW in WUeir regular maWU claVVeV. TUe aVVeVVmenW conWaineT 21 mulWiple-cUoice

queVWionV. TUe aVVeVVmenW iWemV were TeriveT from a quaVi-ranTom VWraWifieT VelecWion of queVWionV from a

previouVly aTminiVWereTH releaVeT copy of a NorWU Carolina NnT-of-GraTe maWUemaWicV aVVeVVmenW (graTe

Vix). SWuTenWV were given a paper copy of WUe aVVeVVmenW anT recorTeT WUeir anVwerV on a VeparaWe anVwer

VUeeW. SWuTenWV alVo inTicaWeT WUeir currenW AcaTemic NnricUmenW WeacUer for claVVificaWion purpoVeV.

Khan Academy metrics. Khan Academy tracks and reports progress and use of the application

by WUe VWuTenWV. TUeVe meWricV proviTeT more TaWa from wUicU Wo analyYe VWuTenW ouWcomeV. OUan AcaTemy

WrackV facWorV VucU aV Wime (in minuWeV) VpenW uVing WUe programH poinWV aWWaineT for accompliVUing WaVkVH

anT WopicV maVWereT. To furWUer inveVWigaWe OUan AcaTemy anT iWV uVe in formal anT informal eTucaWional

VeWWingVH WUe relaWionVUip beWween WUeVe facWorV waV examineT Wo Vee wUaWH if anyH paWWernV emergeT.

Comparison of Groups

Oelly anT RuWUerforT

Table 1 displays the mean test scores and standard deviations of the ELA enrichment, mathematics

enricUmenWH anT WreaWmenW groupVH aV well aV WUe number of VWuTenWV in eacU group wUo were male or female.

An inTepenTenW-VampleV t-WeVW waV run Wo TeWermine if WUere were TifferenceV in WUe poVW-aVVeVVmenW VcoreV

afWer WUe uVe of OUan AcaTemy. AVVeVVmenW VcoreV for boWU groupV were normally TiVWribuWeT (aVVeVVeT by

SUapiro-PilkGV WeVW)H anT WUere waV UomogeneiWy of varianceV (aVVeVVeT by LeveneGV WeVW for equaliWy of

varianceVH p = .949). AnalyViV revealeT unremarkable TifferenceV in mean poVW-aVVeVVmenW VcoreV beWween

WUe combineT maWU anT NLA VupplemenW conWrol (Ó = 72.22H SM = 14.750) anT WreaWmenW (Ó = 73.75H SM

= 14.280) groupV. AlWUougU WUe WreaWmenW group VcoreT VligUWly UigUer (ÓM = 1.53)H TifferenceV TiT noW riVe

Wo a level of VWaWiVWical Vignificance (p = .596). Two oWUer compariVonV were relevanW. OUan AcaTemy may be WUougUW of aV an alWernaWive Wo WraTiWional

VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV inVWrucWion WUaW may benefiW VWuTenWV by proTucing UigUer acUievemenW anTIor

VcUoolV by increaVing efficiency in WUe uVe of inVWrucWional reVourceV. PiWU WUiV queVWionH we woulT wanW Wo

know wUeWUer OUan AcaTemy inVWrucWion waV beWWer WUan or aW leaVW no worVe WUan WraTiWional VupplemenWal

maWU inVWrucWion. In comparing WUe OUan AcaTemy claVV anT WraTiWional maWU VupplemenWal claVVH WUere

waV no Tifference in WeVW VcoreVH t(60) = -1.009H p = .842. Given WUe lack of Tifference beWween WUeVe Wwo

meWUoTV of VupplemenWal maWU inVWrucWionH iW iV worWU aVking wUeWUer exWra maWU aVViVWance iV Uelping WUe

VWuTenWV aW all. AV VucUH we compareT WUe combineT maWU VupplemenWal group Wo WUe NLA VupplemenWal group. AgainH WUere waV no VWaWiVWically VignificanW TifferenceH t(112) = .649H p = .259.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics by Group

Group N % Ó SM

Female 60 53 72.15 14.98

Male 54 47 71.59 15.80

ELA 52 46 70.08 17.66

Math 23 20 73.78 10.60

Treatment 39 34 73.18 14.32

ToWal 114 100 71.89 15.31

Associations between Khan Academy Metrics and Test Score

spent, topics mastered, and points attained. AnalyseV founT Veveral VWaWiVWically VignificanW poViWive

correlaWionV wiWU reVpecW Wo VWuTenW uVe of OUan AcaTemy. InWerpreWaWion of correlaWional valueV

conViTereT .30-.50 Wo be weakH .50-.70 Wo be moTeraWeH anT L.70 Wo be UigU (HinkleH PierVmaH F JurVH 2003).

Oelly anT RuWUerforT

Table 2

Khan Academy Metrics CorrelaWionV and Descriptive Statistics

N=39 M SD Assessment

score

Topics

mastered

Points

attained Minutes spent

AVVeVVmenW Vcore 73.18 14.32

TopicV maVWereT 111.67 37.71 .51

PoinWV aWWaineT 168O 71O .41 .71

ÓinuWeV VpenW 667.59 201.47 .13 .76 .58

PiWUin OUan AcaTemyH meWricV were poViWively correlaWeT aW a moTeraWe Wo VWrong relaWion. ÓinuWeV SpenW

waV WUe meWric arguably moVW unrelaWeT Wo prior VWuTenW abiliWy anT WUerefore WUe leaVW biaVeT WeVW of WUe

poWenWial impacW of OUan AcaTemy uVe. IW waV noW aVVociaWeT wiWU VWuTenW WeVW VcoreH r(37) = .132, p = .422

even WUougU WUere waV a VWrong poViWive aVVociaWion beWween minuWeV VpenW uVing OUan AcaTemy anT WopicV

maVWereTH r(37) = .76, p = K .001. SWuTenW aVVeVVmenW VcoreV were poViWively correlaWeT wiWU boWU WopicV

maVWereT (r(37) = .51, p = .001) anT poinWV aWWaineT (r(37) = .41, p = .009).

Discussion

This study aTTV Wo WUe exWanW liWeraWure on WUe aVVociaWionV beWween uVe of OUan AcaTemy anT in-claVV

maWUemaWicV performance. AV conWribuWionVH our VWuTy preVenWV reVulWV of WUe implemenWaWion of OUan

AcaTemy in a naWuraliVWic claVVroom VeWWingH iWV compariVon Wo Wwo TifferenW conWrol groupVH anT iWV ViWuaWion

wiWUin VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV inVWrucWion. AlWUougU WUere iV no ToubW aV Wo WUe VpUere of influence OUan

AcaTemy UaV wiWU reVpecW Wo WUe uVe of WecUnology for inVWrucWional purpoVeV (TUompVonH 2011)H WUe effecW

of WUaW influence UaV noW been VubjecW Wo rigorouV VcUolarly inveVWigaWion. AlWUougU WUe currenW VWuTy iV

merely exploraWoryH we feel WUaW given WUe limiWeT lanTVcape of reVearcU on OUan AcaTemyH our failure Wo

finT an aVVociaWion beWween OUan AcaTemy anT maWU WeVW VcoreV iV of noWe.

TUiV iV noW Wo Vay WUaW OUan AcaTemy iV wiWUouW meriW or value. TUe meWricV (minuWeV VpenWH poinWV aWWaineTH

anT WopicV maVWereT) wiWUin WUe program may Uave value aV preTicWorV of VWuTenW acUievemenW. HoweverH

iW iV poVVible WUaW VWuTenW facWorVH VucU aV prior maWUemaWicV abiliWy or acUievemenWH may be boWU Triving

WUeVe meWricV anT WeVW VcoreV. ŃurWUer VWuTy incluTing relevanW covariaWeV or inWroTucing ranTom variaWion

in OUan AcaTemy uVe iV neeTeT in orTer Wo Traw concluVionV or make generaliYable aVVumpWionV.

IW iV of noWe WUaW alWUougU we founT no Tifference beWween VcoreV in our WreaWmenW anT conWrol groupVH we

alVo TiT noW finT VWaWiVWically VignificanW TifferenceV beWween WUoVe VWuTenWV wUo parWicipaWeT in

VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV anT WUoVe wUo TiT noW. TUeVe reVulWV may be Tue Wo a general lack of VWrucWure

in enricUmenW claVVeV. TUere may be oWUer ouWcomeV noW inveVWigaWeT wiWUin WUe bounTV of WUiV VWuTy WUaW

OUan AcaTemy anTIor VupplemenWal maWUemaWicV inVWrucWion Uave VignificanW anT meaVurable impacWV onH

Oelly anT RuWUerforT

such as maWU Velf-concepW anT maWU inWereVWH aV TeVcribeT by ÓurpUy eW al.H (2014). IW iV alVo of noWe WUaW

alWUougU we founT no VWaWically VignificanW TifferenceV beWween groupV in WUiV VWuTyH WUe uVe of OUan

AcaTemy waV founT Wo be no worVe WUan more WraTiWional formV of VupplemenWal inVWrucWion.

TUiV VWuTy ToeV noW preVenW generaliYable TaWa anT iV limiWeT in Vcope. Óore reVearcU wiWU greaWer

TemograpUic TiverViWy may preVenW a clearer picWure of WUe effecWV of OUan AcaTemy anT poVVibly Vimilar

programming. TUiV VWuTy examineT only WUe uVe of OUan AcaTemy aV iW may be uVeT by a VWuTenW aW Uome inWernal valiTiWy iV neceVVaryH aV iV an exWenVion of VWuTieV Wo more TiverVe populaWionV.

Conclusion

Open educational resources conWinue Wo grow in boWU number anT influence. OUan AcaTemy iV no excepWionH

anT aV iWV influence anT reVourceV growH WUe number of WopicV wiWUin iWV purview growV aV well. OUan

AcaTemy UaV expanTeT beyonT maWUemaWicV conWenW anT now incluTeV VcienceH arWH UiVWoryH anT economicV.

AV WecUnology evolveV anT becomeV increaVingly ubiquiWouV in eTucaWionH WUe number anT Vcale of programV

VucU aV OUan AcaTemy will be evermore commonplace. ReVearcU inWo WUe applicaWionV WUemVelveVH buW

more imporWanWly WUe meWUoTV employeT by VucU applicaWionVH iV of paramounW imporWance if we conWinue

Wo uVe WUem in claVVroom inVWrucWion. ONR proviTe acceVV Wo informaWion anT knowleTge Wo a broaT VwaWU

of WUe populaWion anT may impacW learnerV in a varieWy of wayV. TUiV VWuTy TiT noW finT aVVociaWionV beWween

uVe of OUan AcaTemy aV VupplemenWal inVWrucWion anT UigUer maWU WeVW VcoreV; UoweverH only one

parameWer of VWuTenW VucceVV waV meaVureT. ConWinueT reVearcU inWo OUan AcaTemy anT oWUer Open

eTucaWional reVourceV iV neeTeT Wo TeWermine WUe Wrue impacW of WUeVe reVourceV anT TeWermine beVW

pracWiceV for WUe uVe of WUeVe programV boWU in anT ouW of WUe claVVroom. Atkins, D. E., Brown, J. S., Hammond, A. L. (2007). A review of WUe open eTucaWional reVourceV (ONR) movemenW acUievemenWVH cUallengeVH anT new opporWuniWieV. ReWrieveT SepWember 2H 2016H from Wrial of a compuWer baVeT maWUemaWicV inWervenWion in Cape Town UigU VcUoolV. Paper presentedquotesdbs_dbs33.pdfusesText_39
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