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A History of English Literature

MICHAEL ALEXANDER

[p. iv]

© Michael Alexander 2000

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with

the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying

issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W 1 P 0LP.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims

for damages.

The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988.

First published 2000 by

MACMILLAN PRESS LTD

Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS

and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 0-333-91397-3 hardcover

ISBN 0-333-67226-7 paperback

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 O1 00

Typeset by Footnote Graphics, Warminster, Wilts

Printed in Great Britain by

Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wilts

[p. v]

Acknowledgements The harvest of literacy

Preface Further reading

Abbreviations 2 Middle English Literature: 1066-1500

Introduction The new writing

Literary history Handwriting and printing

What's included? The impact of French

Tradition or canon? Scribal practice

Priorities Dialect and language change

What is literature? Literary consciousness

Language change New fashions: French and Latin

Other literatures in English Epic and romance

Is drama literature? Courtly literature

Qualities and quantities Medieval institutions

Texts Authority

Primary texts English prose

Secondary texts The fourteenth century

PART 1: Spiritual writing

Medieval Julian of Norwich

1 Old English Literature: to 1100 Secular prose

Orientations Ricardian poetry

Britain, England, English Piers Plowman

Oral origins and conversion Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Aldhelm, Bede, C

ae dmon John Gower Northumbria and The Dream of the Rood Geoffrey Chaucer

Heroic poetry The Parlement of Fowls

Christian literature Troilus and Criseyde

Alfred The Canterbury Tales

Beowulf The fifteenth century Elegies Drama

Battle poetry Mystery plays

Morality plays

Religious lyric

Deaths of Arthur

The arrival of printing

Scottish poetry

[p. vi]

Robert Henryson The drama

William Dunbar The commercial theatre

Gavin Douglas Predecessors

Part 2 The order of the plays

Tudor and Stuart Histories

3 Tudor Literature: 1500-1603 Richard II

Renaissance and Reformation Henry IV

The Renaissance Henry V

Expectations Comedy

Investigations A Midsurnrner Night's Dream

England's place in the world Twelfth Night

The Reformation The poems

Sir Thomas More Tragedy

The Courtier Hamlet

Sir Thomas Wyatt King Lear

The Earl of Surrey Romances

Religious prose The Tempest

Bible translation Conclusion

Instructive prose Shakespeare's achievement

Drama His supposed point of view

Elizabethan literature Ben Jonson

Verse The Alchemist

Sir Philip Sidney Volpone

Edmund Spenser Further reading

Sir Walter Ralegh 5 Stuart Literature: to 1700 The 'Jacobethans' The Stuart century

Christopher Marlowe Drama to 1642

Song Comedy

Thomas Campion Tragedy

Prose John Donne

John Lyly Prose to 1642

Thomas Nashe Sir Francis Bacon

Richard Hooker Lancelot Andrewes

William Shakespeare Poetry to Milton

Shakespeare's life Ben Jonson

The plays preserved Metaphysical poets

Luck and fame Devotional poets

Cavalier poets

John Milton

Paradise Lost

The Restoration

The Earl of Rochester

John Bunyan

Samuel Pepys

[p. vii]

The theatres Non-fiction

Restoration comedy Edward Gibbon

John Dryden Edmund Burke

Satire Oliver Goldsmith

Prose Fanny Burney

John Locke Richard Brinsley Sheridan

Women writers Christopher Smart

William Congreve William Cowper

PART 3 Further reading

Augustan and Romantic 7 The Romantics: 1790-1837

6 Augustan Literature: to 1790 The Romantic poets

The eighteenth century Early Romantics

The Enlightenment William Blake

Sense and Sensibility Subjectivity

Alexander Pope and 18th-century civilization Romanticism and Revolution

Joseph Addison William Wordsworth

Jonathan Swift Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Alexander Pope Sir Walter Scott

Translation as tradition Younger Romantics

The Rape of the Lock Lord Byron

Mature verse Percy Bysshe Shelley

John Gay John Keats

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu Romantic prose

The novel Belles lettres

Daniel Defoe Charles Lamb

Cross-currents William Hazlitt

Samuel Richardson Thomas De Quincey

Henry Fielding Fiction

Tobias Smollett Thomas Love Peacock

Laurence Sterne Mary Shelley

The emergence of Sensibility Maria Edgeworth

Thomas Gray Sir Walter Scott

Pre-Romantic sensibility: 'Ossian' Jane Austen

Gothic fiction Towards Victoria

The Age of Johnson Further reading

Dr Samuel Johnson PART 4 The Dictionary Victorian Literature to 1880 Literary criticism 8 The Age and its Sages James Boswell The Victorian age

[p. viii]

Moral history Middlemarch

Abundance Daniel Deronda

Why sages? Nonsense prose and verse

Thomas Carlyle Lewis Carroll

John Stuart Mill Edward Lear

John Ruskin Further reading

John Henry Newman 11 Late Victorian Literature: Charles Darwin 1880-1900 Matthew Arnold Differentiation

Victorian Romantic poetry Walter Pater

Minor verse A revival of drama

John Clare Oscar Wilde

Alfred Tennyson George Bernard Shaw

Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning Fiction

Matthew Arnold Thomas Hardy

Arthur Hugh Clough Tess of the d'Urbervilles

Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Christina Rossetti Minor fiction

Algernon Charles Swinburne Samuel Butler

Gerard Hopkins Robert Louis Stevenson

The triumph of the novel Poetry

Two Brontë novels Aestheticism

Jane Eyre A. E. Housman

Wuthering Heights Rudyard Kipling

Elizabeth Gaskell Further reading

Charles Dickens PART 5 The Pickwick Papers The Twentieth Century David Copperfield 12 Ends and Beginnings: 1901-19 Bleak House The new century

Our Mutual Friend Fiction

Great Expectations Edwardian realists

'The Inimitable' Rudyard Kipling

William Makepeace Thackeray John Galsworthy

Vanity Fair Arnold Bennett

Anthony Trollope H. G. Wells

George Eliot

Adam Bede

The Mill on the Floss

Silas Marner

[p. ix]

Joseph Conrad Fairy tales

Heart of Darkness C. S. Lewis

Nostromo J. R. R. Tolkien

E. M. Forster Poetry

Ford Madox Ford The Second World War

Poetry Dylan Thomas

Pre-war verse Drama

Thomas Hardy Sean O'Casey

War poetry and war poets Further reading

Samuel Beckett

'Modernism': 1914-27 John Osborne

D. H. Lawrence Harold Pinter

The Rainbow Established protest

James Joyce Novels galore

Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man William Golding

Ulysses Muriel Spark

Ezra Pound: the London years Iris Murdoch

T. S. Eliot Other writers

The love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock Poetry

The Waste Land Philip Larkin

Four Quartets Ted Hughes

Eliot's criticism Geoffrey Hill

W. B. Yeats Tony Harrison

Hugh MacDiarmid and David Jones Seamus Heaney

Virginia Woolf Further reading

To the Lighthouse Postscript on the Current Katherine Mansfield Internationalization Non-modernism: the Twenties and Thirties Postmodernism

Modernism fails to catch on Novels

The poetry of the Thirties Contemporary poetry

Political camps Further reading

W. H. Auden Index

The novel

Evelyn Waugh

Graham Greene

Anthony Powell

George Orwell

Elizabeth Bowen

[p. x]

Acknowledgements Having decided the scope of this history, and that it would be narrative but also critical, the task of selection imposed itself. In

order to sharpen my focus, I then invited, at a preliminary stage, twenty university teachers of English literature each to send

me a list of the twenty works which they believed would have to receive critical discussion in such a history. Some of those

who replied evaded my rigour by including Collected Works in their list. But I thank them all. I have a much longer list of

colleagues to thank for answering more scholarly queries. I name only Michael Herbert, George Jack, Christopher

MacLachlan, Rhiannon Purdie and Michael Wheeler, who each read a chapter for me, as did Neil Rhodes, to whom I turned

for advice more than once.

Thanks also to Frances Arnold and Margaret Bartley at Macmillan, who invited me to write this book; I enjoyed the

reading, and the rereading. Thanks to Houri Alavi, who has patiently shepherded the monster forward into the arena. Thanks

most of all to my family, especially to Mary and Lucy for reading many pages, and for listening.

The book itself is also a kind of thank you - to those who wrote what is now called English literature; to scholars, editors,

critics; to the English teachers I had at school; to fellow-students of literature, especially at Stirling and St Andrews; to all from

whom I have learned. I still have much to learn, and thank in advance any reader who draws to my attention any errors of fact.

Illustrations AKG Photo, London, pp. 94, 110, 133, 150, 241; E.T.Archive, pp. 21, 28, 45, 207, 202; The British Library, p. 190; The

British Museum, pp. 23, 27; J. Burrow and T. Turville-Petre, A Book of Middle English, Blackwell Publishers, p. 37; Camera

Press, London, p. 349; Corbis Collection, p. 340; Corpus Christi College, Oxford, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library, p. 50;

Courtauld Institute of Art, London, p. 138; Judy Daish Associates, p. 364; Norman Davies, The Isles, Macmillan, p. 12; The

Dickens House Museum, London, p. 277; The Dorset Country Museum, p. 301; Edifice, pp. 170, 248; Mark Gerson, p. 367;

The Hulton Getty Picture Collection Ltd, pp. 270, 317, 321, 347, 372; Image Select International, pp. 96, 139, 185, 335, 338;

The National Portrait Gallery, pp. 98, 212, 223, 273, 374, 379; Nottingham County Library, The D. H. Lawrence Collection, p.

326; RIBA Library Photographs Collection, p. 255; Ann Ronan at LS.L, pp. 54, 62, 79, 106, 232, 242, 251, 263, 268, 278, 282,

287, 291, 298, 300; John Timbers, Arena Images, p. 363; Utrecht University Library, p. 108; The Victoria and Albert Museum,

pp. 64, 168, 213.

Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be

pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity. [p. xi]

Preface This History is written for two audiences: those who know a few landmark texts of English literature but little of the

surrounding country; and those who simply want to read its long story from its origins to the present day.

The history of English writing begins very early in the Middle Ages and continues through the Renaissance, the Augustan

and Romantic periods to the Victorian age, the twentieth century, and down to the present. This account of it is written so as to

be read as a coherent whole. It can also be read in parts, and consulted for information. Its narrative plan and layout are clear,

and it aims to be both readable and concise. Attention is paid to the greater poets, dramatists, prose writers and novelists, and

to more general literary developments. Each part of the story gains from being set in literary and social contexts. Space is given

to illustrative quotation and to critical discussions of selected major authors and works.

Minor writers and movements are described rather than discussed, but a great deal of information about them is to be found

in the full apparatus which surrounds the narrative. This apparatus allows the History also to be used as a work of reference. A

look at the following pages will show the text supplemented by a set of historical tables of events and of publications; by

boxed biographies of authors and their works; and by marginal definitions of critical and historical terms. There are some sixty

illustrations, including maps. There are also suggestions for further reading, and a full index of names of the authors and works

discussed. [p. xii]

Abbreviations ? uncertain

Anon. anonymous

b. born c. circa, about d. died ed. edited by edn. edition et al. and others etc. and other things fl. flourished

Fr. French

Gk. Greek

Lat. Latin

ME Middle English

med. Lat. medieval Latin

MS., MSS. manuscript, manuscripts

OE Old English

Literary history

What's included?

Tradition or canon?

Priorities

What is literature?

Language change

Other literatures in English

Is drama literature?

Qualities and quantities

Texts

Primary texts

Secondary texts [p. 1]

Introduction England has a rich literature with a long history. This is an attempt to tell the story of English

literature from its beginnings to the present day. The story is written to be read as a whole,quotesdbs_dbs21.pdfusesText_27

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