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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Praise for the Third Edition:
"A tour de force. The authors have taken the best text available for an introduc- tory course in second language acquisition (SLA) and made it even stronger.... The improvements in the third edition are palpable from the very beginning of the text.... The third edition of Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course should form the basis for any introduction to SLA, at either the graduate or undergraduate level." - Fred Eckman, Center for the Advanced Study of Language,
University of Maryland
"This text presents a comprehensive overview of SLA in an accessible, highly readable manner appropriate for readers new to this discipline.... The new edition includes even more data samples than the previous edition, both integrated into the main text and in the discussion questions at the end of each chapter." - Deborah Pilcher, Gallaudet University "Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course presents the most balanced, grounded, and accessible introduction to a broad field. The field has grown rapidly since publication of the second edition in 2001, and a new, updated, and expanded edition is most welcome. [T]he third edition ... make[s] this breadth of know- ledge accessible to students with little background in the feeder disciplines ... Second Language Acquisition has now become a living standard in our field." - Richard Young, Professor of English Linguistics,
University of Wisconsin-Madison
About the Authors:
Susan M. Gass is Uni versity Distinguished Pr ofessor in the Department of Linguistics and Germanic, Slavic, Asian and African Languages at Michigan State University. She has conducted research in a wide variety of sub-areas of second language acquisition, inc luding language tr ansfer, language uni versals, second language research methods, and input and interaction. She is the author/editor of numerous books, has served as the President of the American Association for Applied Linguistics and is the current president of the International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA). Larry Selinker is one of the original contributors to the research field of second language acquisition, having introduced the concepts "interlanguage" and "fossil- ization," and having conducted one of the first empirical studies in "language transfer" research in 1969. He is now preparing a 40-plus year fossilization study on participants first look ed at in 1964. He has held pr ofessorships at the Universities of Michigan and London and visiting pr ofessorships at v arious universities around the world. Currently, he is Visiting Professor at New York University and is helping to organize Research Production Associates.
SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
An introductory course
Third edition
Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker
First edition published 1994
by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This edition first published 2008
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business First edition © 1994 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Second edition © 2001 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Third edition © 2008 Taylor & Francis
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Second language acquisition : an introductory course / edited by
Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker. - 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-8058-5497-8 - ISBN 978-0-8058-5498-5 -
ISBN 978-0-203-93284-1
1. Second language acquisition.I. Gass, Susan M.
II. Selinker, Larry, 1937-
P118.2.S424 2008
418 - dc22
2007028663
ISBN10: 0-805-85497-5 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0-805-85498-3 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0-203-93284-6 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978-0-805-85497-8 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-805-85498-5 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-93284-1 (ebk)
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. "To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk."
ISBN 0-203-93284-6 Master e-book ISBN
To Gertrude Zemon-Gass and H. Harvey Gass, who instilled in me the love of inquiry To my parents, Sol and Miriam Selinker, who inspired me deeply and whom I miss very much
CONTENTS
Prefacexv
1Introduction 1
1.1The study of second language acquisition1
1.2Definitions6
1.3The nature of language8
1.3.1Sound systems 8
1.3.2Syntax9
1.3.3Morphology and the lexicon11
1.3.4Semantics12
1.3.5Pragmatics 13
1.4The na ture of nonnative speaker knowledge14
1.5Conclusion 14
Suggestions for additional reading15
Points for discussion15
2Related disciplines 20
2.1SLA and related disciplines20
2.2Thir d language acquisition/multilingualism21
2.3Heritage language acquisition23
2.4Bilingual acquisition 24
2.5First language acquisition30
2.5.1Bab bling31
2.5.2Wor ds32
2.5.3Sounds and pronunciation34
2.5.4Syntax35
2.5.5Morpholo gy36
vii
2.6Conclusion 38
Suggestions for additional reading38
Points for discussion39
3Second and foreign language data41
3.1Data analysis 41
3.1.1Data set I: plurals41
3.1.2Data set II: verb + -ing markers46
3.1.3Data set III: prepositions47
3.2What data analysis does not reveal50
3.3Data collection 52
3.3.1Eliciting speec h samples60
3.3.2Eliciting r eactions to data63
3.3.3Verbal report data69
3.3.4Measuring non-linguistic information70
3.3.5Measuring gener al proficiency:
standardized language tests71
3.4Re plication72
3.5Issues in data analysis73
3.6What is acquisition?81
3.7Conclusion 82
Suggestions for additional reading82
Points for discussion82
4The role of the native language: an historical overview89
4.1Introduction 89
4.2Behaviorism 90
4.2.1Linguistic bac kground90
4.2.2Psyc hological background92
4.3Contr astive Analysis Hypothesis96
4.4Err or analysis102
4.5Conclusion 110
Suggestions for additional reading110
Points for discussion111
5Recent perspectives on the role of previously known
languages121
5.1Theories of learning121
5.2Child second language acquisition123
CONTENTS
viii
5.3Child second language morpheme order studies126
5.4Adult second language morpheme order studies130
5.5Revise d perspectives on the role of the native language136
5.5.1Av oidance138
5.5.2Differ ential learning rates139
5.5.3Differ ent paths141
5.5.4Over production143
5.5.5Predicta bility/selectivity144
5.5.6Second language processing151
5.6Interlanguage transfer151
5.7Conclusion 155
Suggestions for additional reading155
Points for discussion155
6Formal appr oaches to SLA159
6.1Introduction 159
6.2Uni versal Grammar160
6.2.1Initial state 163
6.2.2UG principles 168
6.2.3UG par ameters170
6.2.4Falsification174
6.3Tr ansfer: the UG perspective176
6.3.1Lev els of representation176
6.3.2Clustering177
6.3.3Learna bility177
6.4Phonolog y178
6.4.1Mark edness Differential Hypothesis179
6.4.2Similarity/dissimilarity: Speec h Learning Model183
6.4.3Optimality T heory184
6.4.4Ontogeny Phylogeny Model186
6.5Conclusion 189
Suggestions for additional reading189
Points for discussion190
7Typological and functional approaches191
7.1Introduction 191
7.2Typolo gical universals191
7.2.1Test case I: the Accessibility Hierarchy197
7.2.2T est case II: the acquisition of questions200
7.2.3T est case III: voiced/voiceless consonants202
CONTENTS
ix
7.2.4Falsifiability 204
7.2.5Typolo gical universals: conclusions205
7.3Functional a pproaches206
7.3.1Tense and aspect: the Aspect Hypothesis206
7.3.2The Discourse Hypothesis210
7.3.3Concept-oriented approach212
7.4Conc lusion213
Suggestions for additional reading213
Points for discussion213
8Looking at interlanguage processing219
8.1Introduction 219
8.2Connectionist/emergentist models 219
8.3Processing approaches226
8.3.1Processa bility Theory227
8.3.2Inf ormation processing: automaticity,
restructuring, and U-shaped learning230
8.3.3Input Pr ocessing238
8.4Knowledge types241
8.4.1Acquisition-Learning 241
8.4.2Declar ative/procedural242
8.4.3Implicit/explicit243
8.4.4Re presentation and control244
8.5Interface of knowledge types246
8.5.1No interf ace246
8.5.2Weak interface246
8.5.3Strong interface247
8.6Psyc holinguistic constructs248
8.6.1Attention248
8.6.2Wor king memory250
8.6.3Monitoring253
8.7Conclusion 255
Suggestions for additional reading255
Points for discussion255
9Interlanguage in context259
9.1Introduction 259
9.2Variation 259
9.3Systematic v ariation262
CONTENTS
x
9.3.1Linguistic context 263
9.3.2Social con text relating to the native language266
9.3.3Social context relating to interlocutor, task
type, and conversational topic268
9.4Social inter actional approaches280
9.4.1Conv ersation Analysis281
9.4.2Sociocultural theory283
9.5Communication str ategies285
9.6Interlanguage pragmatics287
9.7Conclusion: SLA and other disciplines293
Suggestions for additional reading294
Points for discussion294
10Input, interaction, and output304
10.1Introduction 304
10.2Input304
10.3Comprehension 310
10.4Interaction 317
10.5Output325
10.5.1Feedbac k329
10.5.2Hypothesis testing 341
10.5.3Automaticity 345
10.5.4Meaning-based to grammar-based processing345
10.6The role of input and interaction in language learning346
10.6.1Attention355
10.6.2Contrast theory356
10.6.3Metalinguistic a wareness359
10.7Limitations of input360
10.8Conclusion 362
Suggestions for additional reading362
Points for discussion362
11Instructed second language learning368
11.1Introduction 368
11.2Classroom language368
11.3Processing instruction372
11.4Teac hability/learnability376
11.5Focus on form380
11.5.1Timing384
CONTENTS
xi
11.5.2Forms to focus on386
11.5.3Input manipulation and input enhancement387
11.6Uniqueness of instruction389
11.7Effecti veness of instruction390
11.8Conclusion 392
Suggestions for additional reading392
Points for discussion393
12Beyond the domain of language395
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