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MODULE FOR TOEFL (GRAMMAR & WRITTEN EXPRESSION)

WRITTEN BY GITA RAHMI

Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

Gunadarma University

Depok

ATA 2018/2019

TOEFL: GRAMMAR & WRITTEN EXPRESSION

1. INTRODUCTION

TOEFL stands for Test of English as a Foreign Language. It is a test designed to measure the English-language ability of people who do not speak English as their first language and who plan to study at colleges and universities in North America either as undergraduate or graduate students. Educational Testing Service (ETS) of Princeton, New Jersey prepares and administers TOEFL. This organization produces many other standardized tests, such as the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), and the Graduate Record Exam (GRE). Although there are other standardized tests of English, TOEFL is by far the most important in North America. ETS has offered this exam since 1965. Each year, over a million people take the TOEFL test at testing centers all over the world. Around 7,000 colleges and universities in the United States and Canada accept TOEFL scores from students from non-English speaking countries as part of their application process. Paper-based TOEFL formats are Listening comprehension, Structure and written Expression and reading comprehension. Language tests are very important because it has many purposes in many contexts. The TOEFL test is used to measure English proficiency of students (Suryaningsih, 2014). Based on the observations, it shows that the students had problems in TOEFL especially grammar and written expression. English students themselves need to take TOEFL course before graduating from Gunadarma University. So, non-English Students (ESP students) must also need the course. For that reason, grammar and written expression are studied in the last semester in the course called Business English 2 (Bahasa Inggris Bisnis 2). Bahasa Inggris Bisnis 2 is mostly learned in the last semester which previously the students learn Business English 1 (Bahasa Inggris Bisnis 1). The students are expected to master the grammar and written expression. Based on the RPS (Rencana Pembelajaran Semester) or lesson plan, the students study one skill only from TOEFL aspects that is structure and written expression. Since the material used for the RPS is only taken from one book, the author intends to compile some materials to help the students understand and comprehend this one aspect of TOEFL.

2. TOEFL: STRUCTURE & WRITTEN EXPRESSION

Grammar is one aspect in English. The students need to master grammar in order be able to communicate well and use English in proper way. The structure and written expression section includes two question types; structure and written expression. The grammar section of the TOEFL tests your ability to recognize formal written English. Many things that are acceptable in spoken English are not acceptable in formal written English. The grammar section is designed to measure your ability to recognize language that is appropriate for standard written English. The best method of improving your English grammar is to understand the formula and sample sentence. Then you can do practice by doing the exercise or writing your own sentences. Section 2 sentences are generally about academic subjects: the physical sciences (such as astronomy or geology), the social sciences (such as psychology or economics), or the humanities (such as music or literature). You will not see sentences that deal with

"controversial" subjects such as abortion, illegal drugs, or sensitive political issues. Any

cultural references in the sentences are to the culture of the United States or Canada. Many of

the sentences contain references to people, places, and institutions that you will not be

familiar with. (In fact, many North Americans are not familiar with these either!) It's not necessary to know these references; you should simply concentrate on the structure of the sentences. It's also not necessary to understand all the vocabulary in a sentence; you can often answer a question correctly without a complete understanding of that sentence. There are two possible approaches to Section 2 problems: an analytical approach and an intuitive approach. A test-taker who uses the analytical approach quickly analyzes the grammar of a sentence to see what element is missing (in Structure) or which element is incorrect (in Written Expression). Someone who uses the second approach simply chooses the answer that "sounds right" (in Structure) or the one that "sounds wrong" (in Written Expression). Although this Guide emphasizes the first approach, the second can be useful too, especially for people who learned English primarily by speaking it and listening to it rather than by studying grammar and writing. If you aren't sure which approach works best for you, take Section 2 of one of the Practice Tests using the first method, and Section 2 of another test using the second approach. Did one approach give you a significantly better score? You can also combine the two approaches: if you get "stuck" (unable to choose an answer) using one method, you can switch to another.

MEETING 1

Topic : About Structure

Material : Introduction to the structure

General Purposes : The students know what is tested in the part of structure Specific Purposes : The students are able to understand structure and written expression In general, there are five main points tested in TOEFL (structure and written expressions)

Main testing Points Lesson

Sentence Structure Incomplete Independent Clauses

Incomplete adjective clauses

Incomplete/missing participial phrases

Incomplete/missing appositive

Incomplete adverb clauses

Incomplete noun clauses

Incomplete/missing prepositional phrases

Word order Word order items

Verbs and Verbals Items involving verb problems

Incomplete/missing infinitive and gerund

phrases

Proper style Item involving parallel structures

Items involving misplaced modifiers

Word choice Incomplete/missing comparisons

Missing conjunctions

Missing negative words

What Is the Best Way to Answer Structure Items?

If the answer choices are fairly short, you should begin by taking a quick look at the answer choices to get an idea of what to look for when you read the sentence. A look at the answer choices can often tell you that you are looking at a problem involving verb forms, word order, parallel structure, misplaced modifiers, or others. If the answer choices are long or complicated, begin by reading the stem. Don't analyze it word for word, but as you are reading, try to form a picture of the sentence's overall structure. How many clauses will there be in the complete sentence? Does each clause have a complete subject and verb? Is there a connecting word to join clauses? Are any other elements obviously missing? Then look at the answer choices. If you're not sure of the answer, try to eliminate as many distractors as possible. Distractors in Structure are generally incorrect for one of the following reasons: Never choose an answer until you've read the sentence completely; sometimes an option seems to fit in the sentence unless you read every word. After you have eliminated as many answer choices as possible, read the sentence quickly to yourself with the remaining choice or choices in place of the blank. If an answer doesn't "sound right," it probably isn't. If you still can't decide, guess and go on. If you have time, come back to these more difficult items later. Punctuation clues can sometimes help you solve Structure problems. For example, if there are a series of items in a sentence separated by commas (A, B, and C), you will probably see a problem involving parallel structures.

Tactics for structure:

If the answer choices are short, look them over before you read the sentence. Try to get an idea of what type of problem you are working with. Read the sentence, trying to determine which elements are missing. Never choose an answer until you have read the entire sentence; sometimes an answer will seem to fit until you have read the last few words of the sentence. Mark your choice immediately if the answer is obvious. If you're not sure, try to eliminate incorrect answers. Read the sentence with the remaining answer choices in place of the blank. Choose the option that sounds best. If you are still unable to decide on an answer, guess and and go on. Lightly mark these items on your answer sheet and come back to them if time permits. Go on to the second part of this section (Written Expression) as soon as you've finished Structure. Don't spend so much time working on Structure that you don't have enough time to finish Written Expression.

MEETING 2

Topic : Incomplete Independent Clauses

Material :

Clauses

Missing Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements

Clauses with There and It

General Purposes : The students know incomplete independent clauses Specific Purposes : The students are able to understand Incomplete Independent Clauses with the details on clauses, Missing Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements, and Clauses with There and It.

A) Clauses

All sentences consist of one or more clauses. A simple sentence consists of one clause.

People need vitamins.

The man took a vitamin pill.

Judy lives in northern California.

In the summer, Tom walks to his office.

A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as and and but). The man took a vitamin pill, and he drank a glass of orange juice. Judy lives in northern California now, but she was raised in Ohio. A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (called the main clause) and a dependent (subordinate) clause. Subordinate clauses may be adverb clauses, noun clauses, or adjective clauses. In the sentences below, the independent clauses are italicized. The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold. (independent clause + adverb clause)

I didn't realize that Nancy was here.

(independent clause + noun clause) Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the summer. (independent clause + adjective clause) All three types of subordinate clauses are commonly seen in the Structure part of the test, and each is considered in separate lessons (Lessons 18, 21, and 22). The emphasis in this chapter, however, is on the basic components of independent clauses. B) Missing Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements All clauses have a subject and a verb. Clauses with an action verb often take a direct object as well.

Subject Verb Object

People need vitamins

The verb missing from an independent clause may be a single-word verb (need, was, took, had, walked) or a verb phrase consisting of one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (will need, has been, should take, would have had, had walked). The verbs may be active (need, take) or passive (was needed, is taken). The missing subject and direct object may be a noun (people, vitamins, Tom) a noun phrase (some famous people, a vitamin pill, my friend Tom) or a pronoun. (He, she, it, and they are subject pronouns; him, her, it and them are object pronouns.) After the verb to be and

certain other non-action verbs, a subject complement is used rather than a direct object.

(Subject complements are also known as predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives.)

Subject Verb Compliment

She is an architect

The teacher seemed upset

Sample items

A. That is

B. Is

C. It is

D. Being

The correct answer supplies the missing verb. Choice (A) is incorrect because the word that is used to connect a relative clause to a main clause; in this sentence, there is only

one verb, so there can only be one clause. Choice (C) is incorrect because there is an

unnecessary repetition of the subject (The art of storytelling it ...). Choice (D) is not correct because an -ing form (being) cannot be the main verb of a clause.

C) Clauses with There and It

Some clauses begin with the introductory words there or it rather than with the subject of the sentence. These introductory words are sometimes called expletives. The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time or place. These sentences generally follow the pattern there + verb to be + subject:

There are many skyscrapers in New York City.

There was a good movie on television last night.

The expletive it is used in a number of different situations and patterns:

It is important to be punctual for appointments.

(with the verb to be + adjective + infinitive)

It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state.

(with the verb to be + adverbial + noun clause)

It takes a long time to learn a language.

(with the verb to take + time phrase + infinitive) -

It was David who did most of the work.

(with the verb to be + noun + relative clause) It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the stem.

Sample Items

A. Salt deposits

B. Where salt deposits are

C. Having salt deposit

D. There are salt deposits

Choice (D) correctly supplies an introductory word (there), a verb, and a subject. Choice (A) lacks a verb. Choice (B) contains a subordinator, used to introduce a clause; there is only one verb, however, so there can only be one clause. Choice (C) also lacks a main verb.

MEETING 3

Topic : Incomplete Adjective Clauses

Material : Who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when General Purposes : students are able to understand Incomplete Adjective Clauses Specific Purposes : students are able to understand Adjective Clauses and write the correct sentences of adjective clause

Adjective clauses-also called relative clauses are a way of joining two sentences. In the

joined sentence, the adjective clause modifies (describes) a noun (called the head noun) in another clause of the sentence. It begins with an adjective clause marker. I wanted the book. The book had already been checked out. The book which I wanted had already been checked out. The adjective clause in this example begins with the marker which and modifies the head noun book. Adjective clause markers are relative pronouns such as who, that, or which or the relative adverbs when or where.

Adjective Clause Marker Use Example

Who Subject (people) A neurologist is a doctor who specializes in the nervous system. Whom Object (people) This is the patient whom the doctor treated. Whose Possessive (people) Mr. Collins is the man whose house I rented. Which Subject/object (things) That is a topic which interests me. (which as subject)

That is the topic on which I will

write. (which as object of preposition) That Subject/object (people/things) Art that is in public places can be enjoyed by everyone. (that as subject)

The painting that Ms. Wallace

bought was very expensive. (that as object) Where Adverb (place) Here is the site where the bank plans to build its new headquarters. When Adverb (time) This is the hour when the children usually go to bed. Like all clauses, adjective clauses must have a subject and a verb. In some cases the adjective-clause marker itself is the subject; in some cases, there is another subject. The painting was very expensive. Ms. Wallace bought it. The painting which Ms. Wallace bought was very expensive. The adjective-clause marker in the joined sentence replaces it, the object of the verb bought. In the joined sentence, the adjective clause keeps the subject-Ms. Wallace-that it had in the original sentence.

This is a topic. It interests me.

This is a topic that interests me.

The adjective-clause marker in the joined sentence replaces it, the subject of the second original sentence. In the joined sentence, the marker itself is the subject of the adjective clause. Notice that the inclusion of the pronoun it in the joined sentences above would be an error. Incorrect: *The painting which Ms. Wallace bought it was very expensive. *This is a topic which it interests me. This type of mistake is sometimes seen in distractors. When the markers which, that, and whom are used as objects in relative clauses, they can correctly be omitted. The painting Ms. Wallace bought is very expensive. (which omitted) The adjective-clause markers which and whom can also be used as objects of prepositions:

That is the topic. I will write on it.

That is the topic on which I will write.

You may also see sentences with adjective clauses used in this pattern: quantity word + of + relative clause He met with two advisors. He had known both of them for years. He met with two advisors, both of whom he had known for years. I read a number of articles. Most of them were very useful. I read a number of articles, most of which were very useful. Any part of a relative clause can be missing from the stem of Structure items, but most often, the marker and the subject (if there is one) and the verb are missing. Any word or phrase from another clause-usually the head noun-may also be missing from the stem.

MEETING 4

Topic : Incomplete or Missing Participial Phrases Material : Participial Phrases, reduced relative clauses General Purposes : students are able to understand Participial Phrases or reduced relative clauses Specific Purposes : students are able to understand Participial Phrases or reduced relative clauses and write the correct sentences of Participial Phrases or reduced relative clauses. Participial phrases generally occur after nouns. They are actually reduced (shortened) relative clauses. Present participles (which always end in -ing) are used to reduce adjective clauses that contain active verbs. Minnesota, which joined the Union in 1858, became the thirty-second state. (adjective clause with active verb) Minnesota, joining the Union in 1858, became the thirty-second state. (participial phrase with a present participle) Most past participles end in -ed, but there are also many irregular forms. Past participles are used to reduce adjective clauses with passive verbs. William and Mary College, which was founded in 1693, is the second oldest university in the

United States.

(adjective clause with a passive verb) William and Mary College, founded in 1693, is the second oldest university in the United

States.

(participial phrase with a past participle) Participial phrases can also come before the subject of a sentence. Joining the Union in 1858, Minnesota became the thirty-second state. Founded in 1693, William and Mary College is the second oldest university in the United

States.

Usually, the participle itself is missing from this type of Structure item, but any part of a participial phrase as well as parts of a main clause may be missing.

MEETING 5

Topic : Incomplete or Missing Appositives

Material : Appositives

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