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MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USETANGLED ROOTS AND CHANGING TIDES An initiative by:

Edited by Lydia Slobodian and Léa Badoz

MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE

TANGLED ROOTS

AND CHANGING

TIDES

© James Morgan / WWF-US

Edited by Lydia Slobodian and Léa Badoz

MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE

TANGLED ROOTS AND CHANGING TIDES

Citation: Slobodian, L. N., Badoz, L., eds. (2019). Tangled roots and changing tides: mangrove governance for conservation and

sustainable use . WWF Germany, Berlin, Germany and IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. xii+280pp.

Copyright: © 2019 WWF Germany, World Wide Fund for Nature, Germany and IUCN, International Union for Conservation of

Nature.

ISBN: 978-3-946211-35-8

Design and layout by Imre Sebestyén/UNITgraphics.com

Photo credits

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© Siriporn Sriaram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi

© Ana Grillo / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

© Siwanan Kaewboonrueng / Dreamstime.com

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© Antonio Busiello / WWF-US

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© Fotomelia.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

© Joel Vodell / unsplash.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 © Kampee Patisena / Dreamstime.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 © Jürgen Freund / WWF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

© Pauline Dame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 © J. Yong (SLU Sweden) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 © J. Yong (SLU Sweden) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

© Grethel Ulate

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

© J. Yong (SLU, Sweden)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 © J. Yong (SLU Sweden) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 © Jonathan Caramanus / Green Renaissance / WWF-UK . . . . . 89

© Robert Kibugi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

© Léa Badoz / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

© Robert Kibugi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

© Léa Badoz / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

© Uwe Johannsen / WWF

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147© Léa Badoz / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

© Lydia Slobodian / IUCN

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

© Green Renaissance / WWF-US

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

© Lydia Slobodian / IUCN

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© Lydia Slobodian / IUCN

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 © Dr. Babar Hussain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

© Cactuz Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

© Dr Babar Hussain / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 © Dr Babar Hussain / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

© Brent Stirton / Getty Images / WWF-UK

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© Brent Stirton / Getty Images / WWF-UK

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© Brent Stirton / Getty Images / WWF-UK

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© Lydia Slobodian / IUCN

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© Brent Stirton / Getty Images / WWF-UK

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 © J. Yong (SLU Sweden) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

© Le Duc Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263

© Tantyo Bangun / WWF

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© Léa Badoz / IUCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 © Jürgen Freund / WWF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

© Fotomelia.com

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 © Dolvita108 / pixabay.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USETANGLED ROOTS AND CHANGING TIDES iv

ABOUT THE SAVE OUR MANGROVES NOW! INITIATIVE

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the

International Union for Conservation of Nature

(IUCN) have joined forces in the international to halt the global loss of mangroves. ment of the above-named partners to intensi verse the decrease and degradation of mangrove habitats, and supports the target of the Global area of mangrove habitat by 20% over its current extent by 2030. ment and sound experience in mangrove conser vation, this initiative has the ambition to create a variety of partnerships and cooperation with other mangrove organizations, initiatives, and edge sharing and the exchange of experience in order to encourage collaborations and to foster synergies. of action: 1. grove protection and restoration in interna tional and national political agendas such as the Sustainable Development Goals, the

Aichi targets, and the NDCs under the Paris

Agreement, increasing awareness among de-

-grove conservation as part of global conser-vation, sustainable development, and climate solutions. 2. - -edge gaps on mangrove conservation and restoration. 3.

Supporting innovative lighthouse projects, fostering the dissemination of best practic-es, and mainstreaming mangrove conserva-tion into national development plans in the Western Indian Ocean.

ships with countries and with other initiatives and organizations in order to increase the momentum for mangrove conservation. MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USETANGLED ROOTS AND CHANGING TIDES v

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1:

Drivers of mangrove loss ....................................................................... ..2

Figure 2:

Figure 3:

Ramsar and World Heritage sites containing mangroves ............................................20

Figure 4:

..................................38

Figure 5:

Figure 6:

Prohibited activities in mangrove areas ............................................................67

Figure 7:

Institutions related to mangrove management in Costa Rica .........................................70

Figure 8:

Best practices for mangrove and wetland management in C osta Rica ................................83

Figure 9:

.........................102

Figure 10:

Figure 11:

Figure 12:

..............137

Figure 13:

Figure 14:

.......................169

Figure 15:

....................................193

Figure 17:

Figure 18:

Institutions directly managing mangroves in Tanzania at a national, sub-national, and local level ......219

Figure 19:

............................247

Figure 20:

Overlapping responsibilities of the line-ministries in mangrove manageme nt ........................249

Figure 21:

..255

Figure 22:

..........265

Table 1:

........................19

Table 2:

Selected regional instruments relevant to mangroves ...............................................25

Table 3:

IUCN Protected Area Categories ..................................................................36

Table 4:

............43

Table 5:

CONTENTS

Abbreviations .................................................................vii 1 Introduction ..............................................................1 2 International legal frameworks ............................................6 3 National legal frameworks ...............................................28 4 Costa Rica ................................................................56 5 Kenya ...................................................................88 6 Madagascar .............................................................120 7 Mozambique ............................................................150 8 Pakistan .................................................................180 9 Tanzania ...............................................................204 10 Vietnam ................................................................230 11 Common Findings ......................................................260 12 Recommendations ......................................................272 MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USETANGLED ROOTS AND CHANGING TIDES vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere gratitude is owed to the following experts for contributing their valuable time as external peer

MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USETANGLED ROOTS AND CHANGING TIDES vii

ABBREVIATIONS

BMZ CBD CITES COP CSO EIA ICJ ICZM ISME IUCN MEA MPA MRV NAP NAPA NDC NGO PES REDD SEA SDG UN

UNCLOS

UNECE

UNFCCC

WWFConvention on Biological Diversity

Conference Of the Parties

Civil Society Organisation

International Court of Justice

International Union for Conservation of Nature

National Adaptation Plan

National Adaptation Programme of Action

Nationally Determined Contribution

Non-Governmental Organisation

Sustainable Development Goal

United Nations

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

World Wide Fund for Nature

MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

risdictions and governance regimes. While few national and international regimes apply to or af guardians of coastal integrity. Freshwater law can address pollution and allocate water resources. specially designated forests, while species of man- grove and species that live within mangroves can have protected species status. Land use planning, permitting and environmental impact assessment etary allocation, judicial systems and land and resource tenure are critical determinants of how,

Guiding norms and concepts from international

law and national constitutions shape treatment of mangroves under applicable law. actors as well as national and international poli recognized in constitutions, legislation or con tomary, statutory, community and common law governance in many countries.

Global and regional legal instruments create ob

ligations relating to mangrove conservation and operation and investment. Around the world,

268 Ramsar sites and 19 World Heritage sites

cluded in Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement and National

Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs)

under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Internationally recognized principles such as the precautionary principle, the polluter pays principle and various principles related to proce -dural rights and sustainable development and use decisions relevant for mangroves.

Despite the plethora of applicable laws, man

groves continue to deteriorate rapidly, driven by urbanization, population growth and unsustaina version of land for shrimp production and rice a favoured construction material for houses and cities and local communities. Coastal infrastruc ture development, salt mining, oil exploration and tourism can all drive destruction and pollution of mangroves. Upstream diversion and pollution of watersources from agricultural and urban sourc es contribute to degradation of mangroves down these and other threats leading to a global decline in mangrove health and coverage.

This assessment explores the many legal and gov

ernance approaches and enabling conditions re lating to mangroves in an attempt to understand provide recommendations on how to improve governance for mangrove protection and sustain able use. It begins with an assessment of interna tional and national legal and policy instruments, and proceeds to examine how these instruments are implemented and with what results.

Seven case studies illustrate how mangrove gov

1. how do legal and policy instruments relate to mangroves? 2. how are relevant institutions structured and how well do they operate? MANGROVE GOVERNANCE FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE ix 3. 4. how do instruments, institutions and be-haviour impact the health of mangrove ecosystems? grove governance.

COSTA RICA

enough to protect mangroves from continued degradation. An extensive system of protected nism for conservation of mangrove and wetland ecosystems, but can also provide a haven for ille- gal activities. The National Wetlands Inventory is a promising tool for informing government policy and action, but it needs to be used to inform plan ning processes at the national and local levels. The an example of how a Green Court can contribute to enforcement of environmental regulations, as

Additional guidance and improved planning and

needed to fully safeguard the health of mangroves in the country. KENYA vation in Kenya, grounded in a constitutional right to a healthy environment. The 2017-2027 grammes for addressing management challenges. Community initiatives are a vital part of mangrove governance, but need more support from local and national government. Overall, there is a need for more clarity on institutional arrangements and how institutions should be coordinated with

MADAGASCAR

Community groups or

Fokonolona

are prima ry agents of natural resource governance in Fokonolona are recognized in the

Constitution as responsible for the natural and

cultural environment, and operate through Dina, collective agreements that represent social codes.

This system has been incorporated into laws on

protected areas and community resource man agement, which have been used to set up systems of community management of mangrove areas. power and authority on the part of local commu However, there is evidence that with civil society ensuring sustainability of mangrove ecosystems.

MOZAMBIQUE

The role of mangroves in protecting coastlines

attention of the highest levels of government in asters. However, national policies and legislation related to mangroves are fragmented and poten- ment agencies and law enforcement as well as users. Despite prohibitions on activities in con servation areas, the government has granted con cessions and licences for oil and gas exploration along almost the entire coast. At the same time, es have demonstrated some success in improving enforcement of mangrove protection law, despite

PAKISTAN

countability to clear mangroves with impunity. mangroves as coastal protection and breeding lives, as community activists have been reported- of community mangrove management. Despite based in part on restoration and rehabilitation initiatives supported by IUCN and WWF. The

National Wetlands Policy of 2009 recommends

for wetlands, including mangroves, but to date

TANZANIA

existing legal instruments related to mangroves ty and public awareness. Policies and regulations designed without participation of local communi ties are seen as overly restrictive and alienating.

However, local communities have expressed an

mangrove management through joint manage ment agreements which allocate rights, responsi

VIETNAM

In recent years, Vietnam has improved its man

increase in mangrove coverage. This increase be mangrove forest is almost completely gone and the majority of mangroves now exist in fragmented, replanted, single-species patches. Gaps and over planning and a confusing and unclear tenure sys Local political and social structures together with misaligned economic incentives and absence of alternatives create a culture of noncompliance with mangrove protections.

These case studies provide lessons on what ingre

cultural, economic and political factors as well Community-based management arrangements -diate, rights and responsibilities are clearly de-quotesdbs_dbs27.pdfusesText_33