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The Dart Programming Language

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The Dart Programming Language

Gilad Bracha

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Library of Congress Control Number:2015953614

Copyright

c

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copy-

right, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage

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ISBN-13: 978-0-321-92770-5

ISBN-10: 0-321-92770-2

Text printed in the United States on recycled paper at RR Donnelley in Crawfordsville, Indiana.

First printing, December 2015

To my mother, Shoshana,

who taught me to be picky.

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Contents

Forewordxi

Prefacexv

Acknowledgments xvii

About the Authorxix

Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 Motivation1

1.2 Design Principles2

1.2.1 Everything Is an Object2

1.2.2 Program to an Interface, not an Implementation2

1.2.3 Types in the Service of the Programmer3

1.3 Constraints4

1.4 Overview4

1.5 Book Structure10

1.6 Related Work and In

uences10 Chapter 2 Objects, Interfaces, Classes and Mixins13

2.1 Accessors14

2.2 Instance Variables17

2.3 Class Variables17

2.4 Finals18

2.5 Identity and Equality19

2.6 Class and Superclass21

2.7 Abstract Methods and Classes22

2.8 Interfaces23

2.9 Life of an Object24

2.9.1 Redirecting Constructors29

2.9.2 Factories30

2.10 noSuchMethod()30

2.11 Constant Objects and Fields31

2.12 Class Methods32

2.13 Instances, Their Classes and Metaclasses33

vii viiiContents

2.14 Object and Its Methods34

2.15 Mixins36

2.15.1 Example: The Expression Problem39

2.16 Related Work45

2.17 Summary46

Chapter 3 Libraries47

3.1 The Top Level47

3.2 Scripts48

3.3 Privacy48

3.4 Imports49

3.5 Breaking Libraries into Parts53

3.6 Exports55

3.7 Diamond Imports56

3.8 Deferred Loading57

3.9 Related Work58

3.10 Summary59

Chapter 4 Functions61

4.1 Parameters61

4.1.1 Positional Parameters61

4.1.2 Named Parameters62

4.2 Function Bodies63

4.3 Function Declarations64

4.4 Closures65

4.5 Invoking Methods and Functions66

4.5.1 Cascades66

4.5.2 Assignment67

4.5.3 Using Operators67

4.6 The Function Class68

4.6.1 Emulating Functions68

4.7 Functions as Objects69

4.8 Generator Functions71

4.8.1 Iterators and Iterables72

4.8.2 Synchronous Generators72

4.9 Related Work74

4.10 Summary74

Chapter 5 Types75

5.1 Optional Typing75

5.2 A Tour of Types77

5.3 Interface Types79

5.4 Types in Action: The Expression Problem, Typed82

5.5 Generics85

5.5.1 The Expression Problem with Generics87

Contentsix

5.6 Function Types91

5.6.1 Optional Positional Parameters93

5.6.2 Named Parameters94

5.6.3 Call() Revisited94

5.7 Type Reication95

5.7.1 Type Tests95

5.7.2 Type Casts96

5.7.3 Checked Mode97

5.7.4 Reied Generics98

5.7.5 Reication and Optional Typing98

5.7.6 Types and Proxies99

5.8 Malformed Types102

5.9 Unsoundness104

5.10 Related Work106

5.11 Summary107

Chapter 6 Expressions and Statements109

6.1 Expressions109

6.1.1 Literals109

6.1.2 Identiers116

6.1.3 this120

6.1.4 Constants120

6.1.5 Creating Objects121

6.1.6 Assignment121

6.1.7 Extracting Properties122

6.1.8 Method Access123

6.1.9 Using Operators124

6.1.10 Throw124

6.1.11 Conditionals125

6.2 Statements125

6.2.1 Blocks125

6.2.2 If126

6.2.3 Loops126

6.2.4 Try-Catch128

6.2.5 Rethrow129

6.2.6 Switch129

6.2.7 Assert131

6.2.8 Return133

6.2.9 Yield and Yield-Each134

6.2.10 Labels136

6.2.11 Break and Continue136

6.3 Summary137

Chapter 7 Re

ection139

7.1 Introspection139

xContents

7.1.1 Implications for Speed and Size142

7.1.2 Example: Proxies144

7.1.3 Example: Serialization145

7.1.4 Example: Parser Combinators155

7.2 Why Mirrors165

7.3 Metadata165

7.4 Re

ection via Code Generation166

7.5 Beyond Introspection169

7.6 Related Work169

7.7 Summary170

Chapter 8 Asynchrony and Isolates171

8.1 Asynchrony171

8.2 Futures172

8.2.1 Consuming Futures172

8.2.2 Producing Futures173

8.2.3 Scheduling174

8.3 Streams174

8.4 Isolates175

8.4.1 Ports175

8.4.2 Spawning176

8.4.3 Security177

8.5 Example: Client-Server Communication177

8.5.1 Promise: A Brighter Future177

8.5.2 Isolates as Distributed Objects179

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