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Context Newton's (or the Newton-Raphson) method is one of the most powerful The Taylor series derivation of Newton's method points out the importance of 

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dx2 ) and f(k)(x) is the kth derivative of f evaluated at x As we have function f : R R by a simpler function is to use the Taylor series representation for This method is also known as the Newton-Raphson method and is based on the approx-

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The Newton-Raphson Method

1 Introduction

The Newton-Raphson method, or Newton Method, is a powerful technique for solving equations numerically. Like so much of the dierential calculus, it is based on the simple idea of linear approximation. The Newton Method, properly used, usually homes in on a root with devastating eciency. The essential part of these notes is Section 2.1, where the basic formula is derived, Section 2.2, where the procedure is interpreted geometrically, and|of course|Section 6, where the problems are. Peripheral but perhaps interesting is Section 3, where the birth of the Newton Method is described.

2 Using Linear Approximations to Solve Equa-

tions Letf(x) be a well-behaved function, and letrbe a root of the equation f(x) = 0. We start with an estimatex 0 ofr.Fromx 0 , we produce an improved|we hope|estimatex 1 .Fromx 1 , we produce a new estimate x 2 .Fromx 2 , we produce a new estimatex 3 . We go on until we are `close enough' tor|or until it becomes clear that we are getting nowhere. The above general style of proceeding is callediterative.Of the many it- erative root-nding procedures, the Newton-Raphson method, with its com- bination of simplicity and power, is the most widely used. Section 2.4 de- scribes another iterative root-nding procedure, theSecant Method.

Comment.The initial estimate is sometimes calledx

1 , but most mathe- maticians prefer to start counting at 0. Sometimes the initial estimate is called a \guess." The Newton Method is usually very very good ifx 0 is close tor,andcanbehorridifitisnot.

The \guess"x

0 should be chosen with care. 1

2.1 The Newton-Raphson Iteration

Letx 0 be a good estimate ofrand letr=x 0 +h.Sincethetruerootisr, andh=r-x 0 ,thenumberhmeasures how far the estimatex 0 is from the truth. Sincehis `small,' we can use the linear (tangent line) approximation to conclude that

0=f(r)=f(x

0 +h)f(x 0 )+hf 0 (x 0 and therefore, unlessf 0 (x 0 )iscloseto0, h-f(x 0 f 0 (x 0

It follows that

r=x 0 +hx 0 -f(x 0 f 0 (x 0

Our new improved (?) estimatex

1 ofris therefore given by x 1 =x 0 -f(x 0 f 0 (x 0

The next estimatex

2 is obtained fromx 1 in exactly the same way asx 1 was obtained fromx 0 x 2 =x 1 -f(x 1 f 0 (x 1

Continue in this way. Ifx

n is the current estimate, then the next estimate x n+1 is given by x n+1 =x n -f(x n f 0 (x n (1)

2.2 A Geometric Interpretation of the Newton-Raphson It-

eration In the picture below, the curvey=f(x) meets thex-axis atr.Letabe the current estimate ofr. The tangent line toy=f(x)atthepoint(a;f(a)) has equation y=f(a)+(x-a)f 0 (a):

Letbbe thex-intercept of the tangent line. Then

b=a-f(a) f 0 (a): 2 abrCompare with Equation 1:bis just the `next' Newton-Raphson estimate of r. The new estimatebis obtained by drawing the tangent line atx=a,and then sliding to thex-axis along this tangent line. Now draw the tangent line at (b;f(b)) and ride the new tangent line to thex-axis to get a new estimate c. Repeat. We can use the geometric interpretation to design functions and starting points for which the Newton Method runs into trouble. For example, by putting a little bump on the curve atx=awe can makebfly far away from r. When a Newton Method calculation is going badly, a picture can help us diagnose the problem and x it. It would be wrong to think of the Newton Method simply in terms of tangent lines. The Newton Method is used to nd complex roots of polynomials, and roots of systems of equations in several variables, where

the geometry is far less clear, but linear approximation still makes sense.2.3 The Convergence of the Newton Method

The argument that led to Equation 1 used the informal and imprecise symbol . We probe this argument for weaknesses. No numerical procedure works forallequations. For example, letf(x)= x 2 +17ifx6=1,andletf(1) = 0. The behaviour off(x)near1givesno clue to the fact thatf(1) = 0. Thus no method of successive approximation can arrive at the solution off(x) = 0. To make progress in the analysis, we need to assume thatf(x) is in some sense smooth. We will suppose that f 00 (x) (exists and) is continuous nearr. The tangent line approximation is|an approximation.Let's try to get a handle on the error. Imagine a particle travelling in a straight line, and letf(x) be its position at timex.Thenf

0(x) is the velocity at timex.If

the acceleration of the particle were always 0, then thechangein position from timex0 to timex 0 +hwould behf0(x 0 ). So the position at timex0 +h 3 would bef(x 0 )+hf 0 (x 0 )|note that this is the tangent line approximation, which we can also think of as the zero-acceleration approximation.

If the velocityvariesin the time fromx

0 tox 0 +h, that is, if the ac- celeration is not 0, then in general the tangent line approximation will not correctly predict the displacement at timex 0 +h. And the bigger the accel- eration, the bigger the error. It can be shown that iffis twice dierentiable then the error in the tangent line approximation is (1=2)h 2 f 00 (c)forsome cbetweenx 0 andx 0 +h. In particular, ifjf 00 (x)jis large betweenx 0 and x 0 +h, then the error in the tangent line approximation is large. Thus we can expectlarge second derivativesto be bad for the Newton Method. This is what goes wrong in Problem 7(b).

In the argument for Equation 1, from 0f(x

0 )+hf 0 (x 0 )weconcluded thath-f(x 0 )=f 0 (x 0 ). This can be quite wrong iff 0 (x 0 )iscloseto0: note that 3:01 is close to 3, but 3:01=10 -8 isnotatallcloseto3=10 -8 .Thus we can expectrst derivatives close to0 to be bad for the Newton Method.

This is what goes wrong in Problems 7(a) and 8.

These informal considerations can be turned into positivetheoremsabout the behaviour of the error in the Newton Method. For example, ifjf 00 (x)=f 0 (x)j is not too large nearr,andwestartwithanx 0 close enough tor,theNew- ton Method converges very fast tor. (Naturally, the theorem gives \not too large," \close enough," and \very fast" precise meanings.) The study of the behaviour of the Newton Method is part of a large and important area of mathematics calledNumerical Analysis.

2.4 The Secant Method

The Secant Method is the most popular of the many variants of the Newton

Method. We start withtwoestimates of the root,x

0 andx 1 . The iterative formula, forn1is x n+1 =x n -f(x n Q(x n-1 ;x n );whereQ(x n-1 ;x n )=f(x n-1 )-f(x n x n-1 -x n

Note that ifx

nis close tox n001,thenQ(x n-1 ;x n )isclosetof 0 (x n), and the two methods do not dier by much. We can also compare the methods geometrically. Instead of sliding along the tangent line, the Secant Method slides along a nearby secant line. The Secant Method has some advantages over the Newton Method. It is more stable, less subject to the wild gyrations that can aict the Newton Method. (The dierences are not great, since the geometry is nearly the same.) To use the Secant Method, we do not need the derivative, which 4 can be expensive to calculate. The Secant Method, when it is working well, which is most of the time, is fast. Usually we need about 45 percent more iterations than with the Newton Method to get the same accuracy, but each iteration is cheaper. Your mileage may vary.

3 Newton's Newton Method

Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night:

God said, Let Newton be! And all was light.

Alexander Pope, 1727

It didn't quite happen that way with the Newton Method. Newton had no great interest in the numerical solution of equations|his only numerical example is a cubic. And there was a long history of ecient numerical solution of cubics, going back at least to Leonardo of Pisa (\Fibonacci," early thirteenth century). At rst sight, the method Newton uses doesn't look like the Newton Method we know. The derivative is not even mentioned, even though the same manuscript develops the Newtonian version of the derivative! Newton's version of the Method is mainly a pedagogical device to explain something quite dierent. Newtonreallywanted to show how to solve the following `algebraic' problem: given an equationF(x;y) = 0, expressyas a series in powers ofx. But before discussing his novelsymboliccalculations, Newton tried to motivate the idea by doing an analogous calculation withnumbers,using the equation y 3 -2y-5=0: We describe, quoting (in translation) from Newton'sDe Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum,how he deals with the equation. Like any calculation, New- ton's should be followed with pencil in hand. \Let the equationy 3 -2y-5 = 0 be proposed for solution and let the number 2 be found, one way or another, which diers from the required root by less than its tenth part. I then set 2+p=y and in place ofyin the equation I substitute 2 +p.Fromthis there arises the new equation p 3 +6p 2 +10p-1=0: whose rootpis to be sought for addition to the quotient. Speci- cally, (whenp 3 +6p 2 is neglected because of its smallness) we have 5

10p-1 = 0, orp=0:1 narrowly approximates the truth. Ac-

cordingly, I write 0.1 in the quotient and, supposing 0:1+q=p, I substitute this ctitious value for it as before. There results q 3 +6:3q 2 +11:23q+0:061 = 0: And since 11:23q+0:061 = 0 closely approaches the truth, in other words very nearlyq=-0:0054 ...."

Newton puts-0:0054 +rforqinq

3 +6:3q 2 +11:23q+0:061 = 0,

Neglecting the terms inr

3 andr 2 , he concludes thatr-0:00004852. His nal estimate for the root is 2 +p+q+r,thatis,2:09455148. As we go through Newton's calculation, it is only with hindsight that we see in it the germs of the method we now call Newton's. When Newton discards terms in powers ofp,q,andrhigher than the rst, he is in eect doing linear approximation. Note that 2 +p,2+p+q,and2+p+q+r are, more or less, the numbersy 1 ,y 2 ,andy 3 of Problem 3.

Newton substitutes 0:1+qforpinp

3 +6p 2 +10p-1 = 0. Surely he knows that it is more sensible to substitute 2:1+qforyin the original equationy 2 -2y-5 = 0. But his numerically awkward procedure, with an ever changing equation, is the right one for the series expansion problems he is really interested in. And Newton goes on to use his method to do something really new: he nds innite series for, among others, the sine and cosine functions. Comment.When Newton asks that we make sure that the initial estimate \diers from the required root by less than its tenth part," he is trying (with no justication, and he is wrong) to quantify the idea that we should start close to the root. His use of the word \quotient" may be confusing. He doesn't really mean quotient, he is just making an analogy with the usual `long division' process. Newton says thatq=-0:0054. But-0:61=11:23 is about-0:00543188. Here Newton truncates deliberately. He is aiming for 8 place accuracy, but knows that he can work to less accuracy at this stage. Newton used a number of tricks to simplify the arithmetic|an important concern in the

Before Calculators Era.

Historical Note.Newton's work was done in 1669 but published much later. Numerical methods related to the Newton Method were used by al- Kash, Viete, Briggs, and Oughtred, all many years before Newton. Raphson, some 20 years after Newton, got close to Equation 1, but only forpolynomialsP(y) of degree 3, 4, 5, ..., 10. Given an estimategfor a 6 root, Raphson computes an `improved' estimateg+x. He setsP(g+x)=0, expands, discards terms inx k withk2, and solves forx. For polynomials, Raphson's procedure is equivalent to linear approximation. Raphson, like Newton, seems unaware of the connection between his method and the derivative. The connection was made about 50 years later (Simpson, Euler), and the Newton Method nally moved beyond polynomial equations. The familiar geometric interpretation of the Newton Method may have been rst used by Mourraille (1768). Analysis of the convergence of the Newton Method had to wait until Fourier and Cauchy in the 1820s.

4 Using the Newton-Raphson Method

4.1 Give Newton a Chance

Give Newton the right equation. In `applied' problems, that's where most of the eort goes. See Problems 10, 11, 12, and 13. Give Newton an equation of the formf(x) = 0. For example,xe x =1 is not of the right form: write it asxe x -1 = 0. There are many ways to make an equation ready for the Newton Method. We can rewrite or ....Howwe rewrite can have a dramatic eect on the behaviour of the Newton Method. But mostly it is not worth worrying about. A Newton Method calculation can go bad in various ways. We can usually tell when it does: the rst fewx n refuse to settle down. There is almost always a simple x: spend time to nd a good startingx 0

A graphing program can help withx

0 .Graphy=f(x) and eyeball where the graph crosses thex-axis, zooming in if necessary. For sim-quotesdbs_dbs17.pdfusesText_23