ient Egyptians were famous for their exotic and luxury perfumes in the ancient world, The most detailed perfume recipes for composite scented preparations were written down
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THE ESSENCE AND USE OF PERFUME IN ANCIENT EGYPT
ient Egyptians were famous for their exotic and luxury perfumes in the ancient world, The most detailed perfume recipes for composite scented preparations were written down
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PREPARATION AND USE OF PERFUMES AND PERFUMED
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THE ESSENCE AND USE OF PERFUME IN
ANCIENT EGYPT
bySHEILA ANN BYL
submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree ofMASTER OF ARTS
in the subjectANCIENT NEAR EASTERN STUDIES
at theUNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR P S VERMAAK
JOINT SUPERVISOR: MRS A FERREIRA
FEBRUARY 2012
Student number: 304-383-5
I, Sheila Ann Byl, declare that THE ESSENCE AND USE OF PERFUME IN ANCIENT EGYPT is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. SIGNATURE DATES A BYL
iiSUMMARY
The ancient Egyptians were famous for their exotic and luxury perfumes in the ancient world, even having cities that specialised in perfume production in the Ptolemaic Period, when they exported these perfumes all over the Mediterranean. They produced these perfumes, and other scented preparations, from aromatic plants, fats and oils. The deities were fragrant beings, imbued with the divine essence, and perfume was considered by the Egyptians to be the sweat of the god Ra. Some deities were specially linked to perfume, one of the most important being Nefertem, god of perfume and of the primordial fragrant blue lotus flower. ing to the deities in temples. workshops produced the precious perfumed oils and unguents, used in the funerary context, rituals, ceremonies, festivals and banquets.KEY WORDS/PHRASES
ancient Egypt perfume perfum ceremonies and rituals funerary context festivals banquets iiiDEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Norman Byl. Norman, thank you so much for the constant encouragement and support you have given me, as well as the unfailing interest you have shown in my topic, throughout my research for, and writing of, this dissertation AND To the memory of my parents, the late Bob and Gwen Hobson ivACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere thanks to the following people: My supervisor and mentor, Professor P S Vermaak. Thank you for your never-ending valuable guidance, help and encouragement. My joint supervisor, Mrs A Ferreira. Thank you for your guidance and help. Rob Rademeyer, for translating articles for me from German, French and Dutch. Pat Finlay, for partial assistance with the editing of this dissertation.Lilian Lombard, for formatting this dissertation.
My sister, Margaret Snodgrass, who shares a passion for history with me. Thank you for your interest and encouragement. v viTABLE OF CONTENTS
1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...................................................................................... 5
1.2 HYPOTHESIS .......................................................................................................... 5
1.3 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... 6
1.4 SOURCES................................................................................................................. 8
Textual sources ............................................................................................... 8 1.4.1
Archaeological sources ................................................................................... 9 1.4.2
Iconographic sources ...................................................................................... 9 1.4.3
1.5 OUTLINE ............................................................................................................... 10
Chapters ........................................................................................................ 10 1.5.1
2 CHAPTER 2 THE CLASSICAL AUTHORS .................................................................. 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 13
2.2 THEOPHRASTUS ................................................................................................. 13
2.3 DIOSCORIDES ...................................................................................................... 15
2.4 PLINY THE ELDER .............................................................................................. 17
2.5 GALEN ................................................................................................................... 18
2.6 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 18
3 CHAPTER 3 DEITIES CONNECTED TO PERFUME ................................................. 20
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 20
3.2 NEFERTEM ........................................................................................................... 21
3.3 HATHOR ................................................................................................................ 24
3.4 SHESMU ................................................................................................................ 29
3.5 HORUS ................................................................................................................... 30
3.6 MIN ......................................................................................................................... 32
The secret Min unguent ................................................................................ 33 3.6.1
3.7 BASTET ................................................................................................................. 35
3.8 DEDWEN ............................................................................................................... 36
3.9 MERHET ................................................................................................................ 37
3.10 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 37
4 CHAPTER 4 TRADE ...................................................................................................... 38
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 38
vii4.2 IMPORTATION OF AROMATIC MATERIAL ................................................... 43
.................................................................. 43 4.2.1Other importations of aromatic material ...................................................... 53 4.2.2
4.3 EXPORTATION OF LUXURY/EXOTIC PERFUMES AROUND THE
MEDITERRANEAN ............................................................................................. 62
4.4 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 63
5 CHAPTER 5 INGREDIENTS .......................................................................................... 65
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 65
5.2 PLANTS AND TREES........................................................................................... 67
Plants and trees cultivated in ancient Egypt (indigenous and 5.2.1non-indigenous) ............................................................................................ 67
Plants and trees neither indigenous to ancient Egypt nor cultivated there, 5.2.2having to be imported ................................................................................... 74
5.3 GUMS AND RESINS............................................................................................. 81
Mediterranean coniferous resins ................................................................... 81 5.3.1
Mediterranean non-coniferous resins ........................................................... 82 5.3.2
Burseraceous resins from East Africa and Arabia ........................................ 83 5.3.3Asiatic resins ................................................................................................. 86 5.3.4
Unidentified resins ........................................................................................ 87 5.3.5
5.4 OILS ........................................................................................................................ 87
Almond oil .................................................................................................... 87 5.4.1
Balanos oil (Greek)/balanus oil (Latin) ........................................................ 88 5.4.2
Moringa oil ................................................................................................... 88 5.4.3
Olive oil ........................................................................................................ 88 5.4.4
5.5 FATS ....................................................................................................................... 89
Ox fat ............................................................................................................ 89 5.5.1
Goose and pork fat ........................................................................................ 90 5.5.2
5.6 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 90
6 CHAPTER 6 TYPES OF PERFUME .............................................................................. 92
6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 92
6.2 EXOTIC AND LUXURY PERFUMES ................................................................. 92
Perfumed oils ................................................................................................ 93 6.2.1
Solid perfume ............................................................................................. 106 6.2.2
6.3 INCENSE .............................................................................................................. 107
viiiKyphi .......................................................................................................... 108 6.3.1
The resinous products sntr and ......................................................... 112 6.3.26.4 PERFUMED UNGUENT CONES ....................................................................... 114
6.5 PERFUMED SACRED UNGUENTS/ OILS ....................................................... 114
............................................................................... 114 6.5.1Madjet unguent ........................................................................................... 121 6.5.2
Hekenu unguent .......................................................................................... 122 6.5.3
6.6 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 123
7 CHAPTER 7 PRODUCTION METHODS AND PROFESSIONS ............................... 125
7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 125
7.2 OPERATIONS TAKING PLACE OUTDOORS ................................................. 126
The cultivation of aromatic plant material and that used for oil 7.2.1production ................................................................................................... 126
The gathering and storing of aromatic plant material and plant material 7.2.2used for oil production ................................................................................ 130
The preparation of aromatic plant materials and that used for oil 7.2.3extractions for further processing ............................................................... 134
The production processes for making perfume and extracting oil ............. 137 7.2.4 Putting the extract in jars and transporting it to the perfume workshops 7.2.5 and after processing, transporting the perfumed oils/unguents to .......................... 1427.3 OPERATIONS TAKING PLACE INDOORS ..................................................... 144
Enfleurage (cold steeping) .......................................................................... 144 7.3.1
The heating of aromatic substances ............................................................ 145 7.3.2
The production of animal fats to be used as a base material ...................... 147 7.3.3 The making of incense discs, cakes and cones ........................................... 147 7.3.47.4 PROFESSIONS .................................................................................................... 148
7.5 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 150
8 CHAPTER 8 ......................................... 151
8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 151
8.2 TO THE PTOLEMAIC
PERIOD ............................................................................................................... 151
Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak .................................................................. 152 8.2.1
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