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An Introduction to Language and Communication Sixth Edition Adrian Akmajian Richard A Demers Ann K Farmer Robert M Harnish The MIT Press

AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION Fifth Edition Adrian Akmajian Richard A Demers Ann K Farmer Robert M Harnish The MIT

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Linguistics : an introduction to language and communication / Adrian Akmajian [et al ] —5th ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index

[PDF] Linguistics, Sixth Edition: An Introduction to Language and

An Introduction to Language and Communication Sixth Edition Adrian Akmajian Richard A Demers Ann K Farmer Robert M Harnish The MIT Press

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LINGUISTICS

An Introduction to Language and Communication

Sixth Edition

Adrian Akmajian

Richard A. Demers

Ann K. Farmer

Robert M. Harnish

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts

London, England

(2010 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or informa- tion storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. For information about special quantity discounts, please e-mail special_sales@mitpress.mit.edu. This book was set in Times New Roman on 3B2 by Asco Typesetters, Hong Kong. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Linguistics : an introduction to language and communication / Adrian Akmajian ... [et al.]. - 6th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-262-01375-8 (hardcover : alk. paper) - ISBN 978-0-262-51370-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. Linguistics. I. Akmajian, Adrian.

P121.A4384 2010

410-dc22 2009028422

10987654321

Acknowledgments ix

Note to the Teacher xi

PART I

THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN LANGUAGE1

Introduction5

Chapter 1 What Is Linguistics?13

Chapter 2 Morphology: The Study of the Structure of Words67

2.1 Words: Some Background Concepts 13

2.2 Complex Words and Morphemes 18

2.3 Neologisms: How Are New Words Created? 25

2.4 Inflectional versus Derivational Morphology 45

2.5 Problematic Aspects of Morphological Analysis 48

2.6 Special Topics 51

The Meaning of Complex Words 51

Morphological Anaphora 55

Classes of Derivational Axes 56

Chapter 3 Phonetics and Phonemic Transcription67

3.1 Some Background Concepts 68

3.2 The Representation of Speech Sounds 73

3.3 Special Topics 99

Vowels before /r/99

Contractions in Casual Spoken English 101

Consonant Clusters 103

Chapter 4 Phonology: The Study of Sound Structure109

4.1 What Is Phonology? 109

4.2 The Internal Structure of Speech Sounds: Distinctive Feature Theory 110

4.3 The External Organization of Speech Sounds 126

4.4 Special Topic 140

The Word-Level Tone Contour of English 140

Chapter 5 Syntax: The Study of Sentence Structure149

5.1 Some Background Concepts 149

5.2 An Informal Theory of Syntax 154

5.3 A More Formal Account of Early Transformational Theory 194

5.4 Special Topics 201

More on Dependencies 201

(D)evolution of Phrase Structure and Transformational Rules 208

Chapter 6 Semantics: The Study of Linguistic Meaning225

6.1 Semantics as Part of a Grammar 225

6.2 Theories of Meaning 226

6.3 The Scope of a Semantic Theory 234

6.4 Special Topics 246

Mood and Meaning 246

Deictics and Proper Names 250

Definite Descriptions: Referential and Attributive 254 Natural Kind Terms, Concepts, and the Division of Linguistic Labor 256

Anaphora and Coreference 257

Character and Content: Semantic Minimalism 260vi Contents

Chapter 7 Language Variation273

7.1 Language Styles and Language Dialects 273

7.2 Some Properties of the Grammar of Informal Style in English 285

7.3 Other Language Varieties 293

Chapter 8 Language Change311

8.1 Some Background Concepts 311

8.2 The Reconstruction of Indo-European and the Nature of Language

Change 315

8.3 The Linguistic History of English 332

8.4 Special Topics 343

Language Families of the World 343

Establishing Deep Linguistic Relationships 344

PART II

COMMUNICATION AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE357

Introduction359

Chapter 9

Pragmatics: The Study of Language Use and Communication363

9.1 Some Background Concepts 363

9.2 The Message Model of Linguistic Communication 365

9.3 The Inferential Model of Linguistic Communication 371

9.4 Discourse and Conversation 388

9.5 Special Topics 393

Performatives 393

Speech Acts 395

Meaning, Saying, and Implicating 399

Impliciture and Neo-Gricean Pragmatics 402

Chapter 10

Psychology of Language: Speech Production and Comprehension419

10.1 Performance Models 419

10.2 Speech Production 419vii Contents

10.3 Language Comprehension 427

10.4 Special Topics 458

The Psychological Reality of Empty Categories 459

Connectionist Models of Lexical Access and Letter Recognition 462

Chapter 11 Language Acquisition in Children481

11.1 Some Background Concepts 481

11.2 Is There a ''Language Acquisition Device""? 494

11.3 Is the Human Linguistic Capacity Unique? Children and Primates

Compared 510

11.4 Special Topic 519

Principles and Parameters 519

Chapter 12 Language and the Brain531

12.1 Is Language Localized in the Brain-and If So, Where? 532

12.2 How Does the Brain Encode and Decode Speech and Language? 539

12.3 Are the Components of Language Neuroanatomically Distinct? 547

12.4 Special Topics 551

PET and fMRI Imaging 551

Event-Related Potentials 555

Japanese Orthography and Graphic Aphasia 560

IsFOXP2a ''Language Gene?"" 560

Appendix

The Written Representation of Language569

Glossary 579

Index 601viii Contents

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