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INTRO TO LINGUISTICS:

LANGUAGE CHANGE

Jason Zentz ‡ GHŃHPNHU 3, 2012

Big picture

2 ...How do languages change over time? ...What does it mean for languages to be related? ...What were the languages of the past like? ...What can the history of a language tell us about the history of its speakers?

English over time (Matthew 26:73)

3 ...Old English (West-Saxon Gospels, c. 1050) †þa aefter lytlum fyrste JjQMOęPRQ þa ðe þaer stodon, cwaedon to petre. Soðlice þu eart of hym, þyn spraec þe gesweotolað. ...Middle English (Wycliffe Bible, late 1300s) †And a litil aftir, thei that stooden camen, and seiden to Petir, treuli thou art of hem; for thi speche makith thee knowun. ...Early Modern English (King James Bible, 1611) †And after a while came vnto him they that stood by, and saide to Peter, Surely thou also art one of them, for thy speech bewrayeth thee. ...Modern English (New International Version, rev. 2011) †After a little while, those standing there went up to Peter and said, ´6XUHO\ \RX MUH RQH RI POHP \RXU MŃŃHQP JLYHV \RX MRM\Bµ adapted from Lyle Campbell (2004). Historical Linguistics: An Introduction (2nd ed.). pp. 7-10.

Types of language change

4 ...Lexical change ...Sound change

†Phonetic change

†Phonological change

...Grammatical change

†Morphological change

†Syntactic change

...Semantic change

Sound change 5

Phonetic vs. phonological change

6 ...Phonetic change †Change in the phonetic realization of an allophone that has no impact on the phonological system †[r] > [݋] in English, [ݒ, ݓ] in French, German, Danish ...Phonological change †Change in phonological rules and allophone distribution

†Phoneme loss, addition, split, merger

†Chain shifts

Conditioned vs. unconditioned

7 ...Unconditioned (across-the-board)

†Hawaiދ

Proto-

Polynesian Hawaiދ

Conditioned vs. unconditioned

8 ...Conditioned (particular phonetic environment)

†Banoni palatalization (*t > ts / __ V[+high])

Pre-Banoni Banoni Gloss

Types of phonological changes

9 ...Assimilation/dissimilation ...Lenition/fortition ...Insertion/deletion ...Metathesis (ab > ba) ...Fusion/fission ...Diphthongization/monophthongization ...Tonal changes

Types of phonemic changes

10 ...Phoneme loss ...Phoneme addition ...Phoneme merger (Lat. Am. Spanish */ݠ/, */j/ > /j/) ...Phoneme split (English

CQC ! CQC CǪC)

Pre-Motu Motu Gloss

Chain shifts

11 ...Great Vowel Shift (1350-1700) ...Northern Cities Vowel Shift

Grammatical and semantic change 12

Morphological change

13 ...Allomorphy change via sound change

†Middle Eng. seiden > Early Modern Eng. saide

...Morpheme boundary shifts †Fr. cerise (sg./pl.) reanalyzed as plural in English > cherry ...Analogy

†A : B :: C : D

†Extension (proportional analogy)

†Leveling

†Back formation (editor > edit + -er)

†Folk etymology (hamburg + -er > ham + burger)

Syntactic change

14 ...Word order

†Subject-verb inversion in English

"Old: JjQMOęPRQ [þa ðe þaer stodon] approached.3pl they that there stood.3pl "Early Modern: came vnto him [they that stood by] "Modern: [those standing there] went up to Peter

†Often triggered by morphological change

"Loss of case morphology > fixed word order ...Grammaticalization / semantic bleaching

Semantic change

15 ...Broadening †Dog < specific breed of dog, (Facebook) friend ...Narrowing ...Metonymy ...Elevation/degradation ...Euphemism ...Hyperbole

Relatedness and reconstruction 16

Relatedness

17 ...Causes for cross-linguistic similarity

†Anatomical similarity across speakers

†Coincidence

†Iconicity

†Borrowing through language contact

†Genetic relatedness

"Related languages have descended from a single common ancestor language. "Proto-language: an ancestor language reconstructed by comparing its daughter languges

Comparative method

18 ...Cognates

Portuguese Spanish Catalan French Gloss

tܣ bݐܣ

Comparative method

19 ...Sound correspondences

Port Span Cat Fr Environment

p p p p #__, __V# t t t t #__ t t Ø Ø __V# d d d d #__ d d Ø Ø __V# k k k k #__ k k Ø Ø __V# i e Ø Ø __# u o Ø Ø __#

Comparative method

20 ...Reconstruction

P-WR Port Span Cat Fr Environment

*p p p p p #__, __V# *t t t t t #__ *t t t Ø Ø __V# *d d d d d #__ *d d d Ø Ø __V# *k k k k k #__ *k k k Ø Ø __V# *aǪ ܣ *an ܣ *e (?) i e Ø Ø __# *o (?) u o Ø Ø __#

Comparative method

21
...Sound changes and subgrouping

†Catalan, French:

"*Cstop V# > *Cstop # > # "But *p did not delete (Cat. kop, Fr. kup)...

†Portuguese, French:

"*aN > *mN > *m (> ܣ

†Portuguese:

"*e# > i#, *o# > u#

†French:

"*u > y, *o > u

Computational phylogenetics

22
...We borrow methods from evolutionary biology to

†Track lexical changes

†Quantify results

"Avoid initial bias "Evaluate alternative subgrouping hypotheses

†Study large or understudied families

†Study rates of change

†Do phylogeography (model geography of splits)

†Date splits in the tree

Karnic NeighborNet: 25 taxa, 5487 binary characters. Bowern C Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010;365:3845-3854

©2010 by The Royal Society

Map and language family tree showing the settlement of the Pacific by Austronesian- speaking peoples. Gray R D et al. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2011;366:1090-1100

©2011 by The Royal Society

A dated phylogenetic tree of 87 Indo-European languages. Gray R D et al. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2011;366:1090-1100

©2011 by The Royal Society

Why do languages change? 26

Causes of language change

27
...Drift †When there is variability in the input, children may assume different targets than their parents †Over time, the new target becomes dominant across speakers ...Contact ...Functional need ...Internal structural pressure

†Chain shifts, analogy

Do languages change differently?

28
...Varying contact scenarios ...Language ideologies ...Social properties

†Hunter-gatherer vs. agriculturalist

†Population size

†Population mobility

Loan rates in HG vs. AG languages

29
...122 languages across three case study areas:

†Australia (AUS)

†Amazonia (SAM)

†California/Great Basin (NAM)

...204-word basic vocabulary list, coded for loan status ...Evaluated subsistence type, population size, population mobility as predictors of loan rate ...Overall, HG loan rates were not higher than range appropriate for computational phylogenetics

Bowern, Claire, Patience Epps, Russell Gray, Jane Hill, Keith Hunley, Patrick McConvell & Jason Zentz. 2011.

Does lateral transmission obscure inheritance in hunter-gatherer languages? PLos ONE 6(9). e25195.

Loan rates in HG vs. AG languages

30
...Hunter-gatherer vs. agriculturalist difference is significant across the sample

†This is skewed by the all-HG AUS sample

†Not significant within either NAM or SAM

Bowern, Claire, Patience Epps, Russell Gray, Jane Hill, Keith Hunley, Patrick McConvell & Jason Zentz. 2011.

Does lateral transmission obscure inheritance in hunter-gatherer languages? PLos ONE 6(9). e25195.

Numerals in HG vs. AG languages

31
...397 languages across AUS, NAM, SAM, Africa ...Analyzed extent of system, compositionality, etymology ...HG-AG difference

†Not generalizable across the sample

†Africa: HG systems smaller than AG systems

†NAM: large systems for both HGs and AGs

†SAM: small systems for both HGs and AGs

only

Epps, Patience, Claire Bowern, Cynthia A. Hansen, Jane H. Hill & Jason Zentz. On numeral complexity in hunter-

gatherer languages. Linguistic Typology 16(1). 41-109.quotesdbs_dbs14.pdfusesText_20