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Brand Value:

the work of ecolabelling and place-branding in New Zealand tourism

Justin Westgate

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

in Geography, The University of Auckland, 2009. iii

Abstract

New Zealand relies on a place-branding framed by 'clean-green' images. Tourism, now a key economic sector for the country, both relies on similar green credentials, as well acting to promote the country in a particular light. This research works to interrogate the intersection of tourism with both place and environmental branding. While previ- ous research has investigated eco-tourism and the implications of eco-certification, this study considers implications for mainstream tourism. Given a perceived green framing of general tourism marketing, it works to understand the manifest support via industry engagement and brand objects. It investigates the deployment of ecolabels and their relation to wider New Zealand destination branding, as well as the particular geographi- cal imaginaries mobilised. As well, it considers how subjectivities are framed via the particular tourism-related groups, and how the proposition of sustainability is enacted via projects within the tourism sector. This research employs a critical post-structural analysis. It focuses attention on 'geo- graphical entanglement' and understandings of how cultural ideas and objects 'make' place and are performed through active relational processes such as branding. Key strate- gic tourism projects are investigated in order to understand the deployment of key brand objects via place, tourism and environment, and the practices at work in their mobilisa- tion and circulation, as well the enactment of production and consumption subjectivi- ties. This investigation is grounded in an empirical case-study within the New Zealand tourism industry. Tourist operators and visitors are surveyed in two key tourism regions:

Rotorua and Queenstown.

Findings show both a symbolic and structural entanglement between tourism and place projects, attesting to reexive and evolving brand objects. These market-oriented objects also contentiously work to enact place as well as make particular subjectivities. Tourist visitors and operators support ideas of sustainability, however deployment at sites of tourism consumption could be further supported. Further, voluntary market deployment of sustainability initiatives may not be capable of pricing the full social and environmen- tal costs, suggesting the need for greater market intervention. While the New Zealand tourism industry has enacted strategies to enhance sustainable operation, consistent gov- ernment support is required more broadly via policies and implementation to attend to an increasingly challenged clean-and-green image of the country. iv v

Acknowledgements

First of all I need to thank Nick Lewis, my supervisor, for the on-going guidance and support. Especially, those unscheduled chats that helped me make sense of what I was doing, and the invaluable feedback which helped me focus my thoughts in writing. In a related vein, I also need to thank Professor Richard Le Heron for his inspiring geographic outlook, and as well his generous academic support throughout my post- graduate explorations. Thanks also to the wonderful Lucy Baragwanath for her unbridled enthusiasm and advice along the way. As well, Ping, Paula and Abbey, my postgraduate colleagues, thanks for the conversations that helped keep me grounded. A special thanks to the Ministry of Tourism for their generous support with this research. In particular to Fiona Macdonald at the Ministry, and to Lyska Nelson and Sophie Rainford at Tourism New Zealand, for their help along the way. And to all the other helpful folk at both the Ministry of Tourism and Tourism New Zealand who gave of their time and expertise during the research. Thanks also to all who gave of their time to be involved with the research. Specifically those tourism operators both in their support for the research, and for their ongoing commitment to the sustainability cause. The frankness and honesty during conversations helped give real insight into the industry. Also, thanks to the visitors who were only more than happy to share their thoughts and time while on holiday. I need also to acknowledge the ongoing and unconditional support from my parents and family, which has enabled my continued academic explorations. And, finally, thanks to the mystical Monica for her help, but more so, just for listening and being patient. vi

Table of contents

Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

Table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

1.2 Purpose of the research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

1.3 Rationale for study and significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

1.4 Approach/methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

1.5 Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

1.6 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

1.7 Organisation of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Chapter Two: Background

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

2.2 Tourism in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

2.2.1 The Government and tourism marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

2.2.2 From New Zealand Way to Brand New Zealand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

2.2.3 New Zealand's tourism strategy and sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

2.2.4 Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

2.3 Tourism certification and ecolabelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

2.3.1 Qualmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

2.3.2 Qualmark Green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

2.3.3 Green Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Chapter Three: Literature Review

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

3.2 Cultural geography and tourist geographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

3.3 Geographies of branding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

3.4 Destination image and branding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

3.5 Ecolabelling and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

3.6 New Zealand Tourism Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

3.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Chapter Four: Methodology

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

4.2 Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

4.3 Research design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

4.4 Official documents - tourism and sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

4.4.1 Tool: content analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

4.4.2 Recruitment, data collection and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

4.5 Tourism marketing collateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

4.5.2 Tool: Quasi-statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

4.5.3 Recruitment, data collection and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

4.6 Tourism operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

4.6.1 Tool: semi-structured interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

4.6.2 Recruitment, data collection and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

4.7 Visitors (international, domestic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

4.7.1. Tool: semi-structured interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

4.8 Timeframe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

4.9 Validity and reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

4.10 Research limitations and implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

4.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

Chapter Five: Findings - Politics and objects of sustainability

5.1 Sustainable Tourism: A Political Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

5.1.1 The value of 'clean and green' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

5.1.2 The New Zealand Tourism Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

5.2 100% Pure marketing and more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

5.2.1 A brand for New Zealand Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

5.2.2 Expanding beyond the formal brand boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

5.2.3 Implementing 100% Pure: Giving it a Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

5.2.3 More than 100% Pure: where tourism and place-branding meet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

5.4

Deployment of ecolabels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

5.4.1 Operator deployment of ecolabels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

5.4.2 On-site ecolabel implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

5.5 Putting it all together: promoting New Zealand tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

5.6 Relating strategies, brands, objects, and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

5.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

Chapter Six:

Sustainable tourism in producer-consumer relations

6.1 Understanding tourism consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

6.1.1 Interviewing site visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

6.1.2 Clean and green awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

6.1.3 The clean-green expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

6.1.4 Sustainability certificated tourism consciousness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

6.1.5 Sustainable management of New Zealand tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

6.1.6 Major tourist information sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

6.2.1 Tourism operator sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

6.2.2 'Clean and green' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

6.2.3 Deployment of ecolabels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

vii

6.2.4 Ecolabel use in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

6.2.3 Sustainable management in New Zealand tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

Chapter Seven: Discussion

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

7.2 Tourism and sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

7.3 'Clean-green' imaginaries - making and performing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

7.4 Performance of ecolabels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

7.5 Brand performance and entanglements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

Chapter Eight: Conclusion

8.1 Geographies of tourism and brand entanglements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

8.2 Environmental performance in New Zealand tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

8.3 Tourism and sustainability policy in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

viii 1

Chapter One:

Introduction

This research investigates the intersection between branding, environment and tourism (see Figure 1.1). For New Zealand the features of place, environment and tourism find convergence via the assembly of a globally-competitive market-focused identity. Tour- ism has become a key economic sector for the country. It both draws upon particular geographical imaginaries, and reinforces the position of the country on the global stage. Nation- or place-branding has been orchestrated over the last decade, with a key ele- ment of this being the international tourism marketing '100% Pure New Zealand' brand campaign. Based on a premise of 'authenticity' and backed by 'clean-green' images of the country's natural landscape, the campaign has worked to solidify particular images in the minds of viewers. Given also the importance of a qualified visitor experience, and an increasing impetus to manage the environmental impacts of tourism, this thesis explores the connection between ecolabelling, place-branding and how these work, not just to objectify and identify, but performatively work to make place.

Tourism

EnvironmentBranding

EcolabelingPlace-branding

Ecotourism

Figure 1.1: a model showing the area of investigation - the intersection of tourism, branding and envi-

ronment. This research highlights symbolic and structural entanglements between projects of tour- ism marketing and place-branding, attesting to ideas of reexive and evolving brand objects. These market-oriented objects work contentiously to enact place as well as make particular subjectivities. They draw upon key New Zealand cultural symbols and imagi- naries, which have the potential to mobilise support for environmental projects. But the 2 contentious mode of deployment and lack of substantial support presents real issues to their continued employment. Tourist visitors and operators support ideas of sustainability, but these are as yet uncon- vincingly deployed. Labels are employed to standardise and qualify, and here environ- mental sustainability is of key concern. The deployment, however, relies on voluntary market uptake, and in the case of sustainability initiatives, may not be capable of pricing the full social and environmental costs. This suggests the need for more direct market intervention. While the tourism industry has actively mobilised strategies to enhance sus- tainable operation, there is need for firm and consistent government support via policy and implementation on all levels to attend to a challenged clean-and-green image of the country. Given though that the product here is New Zealand, and that projects are largely government-driven, intervention is appropriate and entirely feasible

1.1 Background

The forces of globalisation have impacted on many areas of contemporary life. Of par- ticular interest to geographers have been the geopolitical and geo-economic agendas, as well as a sense of 'time-space compression' (Harvey 1989). The result is 'deterrito- rialisation' - where the previous 'fixed' structures of economy and national borders are seen to dissolve into a 'space of flows' (Castells 1989). Here economies, along with national identities, are uprooted as the bounds of the nation are transcended by the global. Experience, also, is seen to become less differentiated as media and objects produced for global consumption. Familiarity and standardization become the focus and experience becomes generic (Ritzer 1993). However, within cultural geography the latter developments of the 'cultural turn' (Philo

2009) refocused efforts on understanding social differentiation through space - particu-

larly in light of the impacts of globalisation. Fuelled by a concern with the cultural poli- tics of identity as well as forms of cultural resistance to power, investigation has been focused into how individuals resist political forces and work to shape their own histories and geographies (see Cresswell 1996, Pile and Keith 1997, Sibley 1995). The making, or the reaffirmation of identity has become of increasing interest (Rankin 2009). The focus on identity has invigorated the significance of place, not just for the individual but for the nation-state, and the business. Within cultural-economy, one focus has become the way that the local adds value, and can be mobilised to create value in a world gripped by genericising pressures on experience. 3 Cities, regions and countries have all come to operate as active agents in this process. They have become increasingly interested in establishing and promoting a distinctive identity. 'Place-branding' as a promotional discipline has developed via a merging of national identity and country of origin (Dinnie 2008). Not just marketing 'images' of a place, place-branding uses the tools of corporate branding to infuse the values of 'the brand' throughout all aspects of the destination's operation. In the case of New Zealand, the 'Brand New Zealand' project set out to 'foster collaboration and linkages between and among sector, regional and business groups, facilitate access to infrastructure, and promote an enterprise and business culture' (Ministry of Economic Development 2006). This project has intersected with the country's successful international tourism marketing campaign, first launched in 1999, '100% Pure New Zealand'. Tourism has developed dramatically as an activity and sector over the last century, espe- cially in the latter decades of the period with the development of affordable international travel. It is now one of the largest global industries, and its development has been a reflec- tion of wider globalisation. It exemplifies the search for the curious mix of local and global aesthetics that give globalisation much of its force. Increased patterns of global consump- tion are mirrored by the increased flows of people travelling for both leisure and business (Edensor 2009). New Zealand has always relied upon its natural beauty in attracting visi- tors (Ateljevic and Doorne 2002), but attracted only a niche market from Europe, and was lumbered with an image of being dull (Tzanelli 2004). The development of the 100% Pure marketing campaign aimed to dispel this myth by positioning New Zealand as a unique destination in a homogenous global marketplace - a place of truly 'authentic' experience (Morgan et al 2002). The campaign is a long-running successful example of destination- branding and of adding value to activities by associating them with place.quotesdbs_dbs6.pdfusesText_12