Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation
PREFACE One of the purposes of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is to coordinate the activities of its 188 Members in the generation of data and
Present Weather (descriptions abridged from WMO Code)
definition) Isolated starlike snow crystals (with or without fog) Granular snow (with or without fog) Ice needles (with or without fog) Continuous fall of snowflakes, heavy at time of obs Continuous fall of snowflakes, moderate at time of obs Intermittent fall of snowflakes, moderate at time of obs Intermittent fall of snowflakes, slight at
Weather Observation and Analysis
definition of fronts that will serve us well enough for the time being A synoptic-scale front is an air mass boundary that extends up into the troposphere It includes at least a locally enhanced temperature gradient and a vector wind shift A vector wind shift means that the horizontal wind vectors on one
AERODROME METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATION AND FORECAST STUDY GROUP
objectively defined MOR, the parameter considered as the definition of visibility for WMO needs, may have been used by default, but was not felt to be well adapted to the conditions encountered on an aerodrome Therefore, in 2001, the definition of visibility for aeronautical purposes (VA) was introduced in Annex 3
Introduction to GRIB2 using the GFS forecasts
VGRD (meridional wind) Sub-messages save space because they share a common grid definition Submessages are often used to keep common variables together For example, NCEP Operations usually keep the zonal and meridional winds in the same message as shown above Note that in the above inventory, both fields start at the same byte location
OMM / Météo-France
Notions de base (1) – Rappel Adiabatisme = pas d'échange ni de chaleur ni de masse, entre la particule et l'environnement Pseudo-adiabatisme irréversible = pas d'échange de chaleur mais perte de masse
AERODROME METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVING SYSTEMS STUDY GROUP
appropriate definition would be that used in the United States as was presented to the MET Divisional Meeting (2002) as this definition had the advantage of being very simple and therefore easy for pilots to understand and interpret It was belie ved that this definition would be acceptable provided that clear guidance
CEDIM Forensic Disaster Analysis Group (FDA)
Definition (Meteo France) Min Sea Level Pressure Wind Gusts Time Wind Sustained 18 0S 38 0 E 390 km NE of Beira Tropical Depression 75 kt 139 kph 04-03 00 UTC 30 kt 55 kph 17 3S 37 3 E 385 km NE of Beira N 4 kt Zone of Disturbed Weather 35 kt 65 kph 04-03 18 UTC 24 kt 45 kph 16 9S 40 2 E 655 km NE of Beira E 12 kt Tropical Depression 46 kt
An Observational Examination of Long-Lived Supercells Part I
Not surprisingly, part of the supercell definition in-cludes persistence, namely, that the storm’s midlevel circulation (i e , mesocyclone or mesoanticyclone) per-sists at least on the order of tens of minutes (Moller et al 1994), representing the upper bound of the time it takes for a single thermal to be processed by an updraft (Doswell 2001)
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Guide to Meteorological Instruments
and Methods of ObservationWMO-No. 8
Guide to Meteorological Instruments
and Methods of ObservationWMO-No. 8
Seventh edition
2008WMO-No. 8
© World Meteorological Organization, 2008
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to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised.PREFACE
one of the purposes of the World Meteorological organization (WMo) is to coordinate the activities of its 188 Members in the generation of data and information on weather, climate and water, accord- ing to internationally agreed standards. With this in mind, each session of the World Meteorological congress adopts technical regulations which lay down the meteorological practices and procedures to be followed by WMo Members. these technical regulations are supplemented by a number ofManuals and guides which describe in more detail
the practices, procedures and speciÞ cations thatMembers are requested to follow and implement.
While Manuals contain mandatory practices, guides
such as this one contain recommended practices. the first edition of the Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation was published in 1954 and consisted of twelve chapters. since then, standardization has remained a key concern of the commission for Instruments and Methods of observation (cIMo) activities, and cIMo has peri- odically reviewed the contents of the guide, making recommendations for additions and amendments whenever appropriate. the present, seventh, edition is a fully revised version which includes additional topics and chapters reß ecting recent technological develop- ments. Its purpose, as with the previous editions, is to give comprehensive and up-to-date guidance on the most effective practices for carrying out meteorological observations and measurements. this edition was prepared through the collabora- tive efforts of 42 experts from 17 countries and was adopted by the fourteenth session of cIMo (geneva, december 2006). the guide describes most instruments, systems and techniques in regular use, from the simplest to the most complex and sophisticated, but does not attempt to deal with methods and instruments usedonly for research or experimentally. furthermore, the guide is not intended to be a detailed instruction
manual for use by observers and technicians, but rather, it is intended to provide the basis for the preparation of manuals by national Meteorological and Hydrological services (nMHss) or other interested users operating observing systems, to meet their speciÞ c needs. However, no attempt is made to specify the fully detailed design of instruments, since to do so might hinder their further development. It was instead considered preferable to restrict standardization to the essential requirements and to conÞ ne recommendations to those features which are generally most common to various conÞ gurations of a given instrument or measurement system. although the guide is written primarily for nMHss, many other organizations and research and educa- tional institutions taking meteorological observations have found it useful, so their require- ments have been kept in mind in the preparation of the guide. additionally, many instrument manu- facturers have recognized the usefulness of the guide in the development and production of instru- ments and systems especially suited to MembersÕ needs. Because of the considerable demand for this publication, a decision was taken to make it availa- ble on the WMo website to all interested users. therefore, on behalf of WMo, I wish to express my gratitude to all those nMHss, technical commis- sions, expert teams and individuals who have contributed to this publication. (M. Jarraud) secretary-generalCONTENTS
Part I. MeasureMent of MeteorologIcal VarIaBles
CHAPTER 1. General ........................................................................................................................ I.1-1
CHAPTER 2. Measurement of temperature ..................................................................................... I.2-1
CHAPTER 3. Measurement of atmospheric pressure ....................................................................... I.3-1
CHAPTER 4. Measurement of humidity .......................................................................................... I.4-1
CHAPTER 5. Measurement of surface wind ..................................................................................... I.5-1
CHAPTER 6. Measurement of precipitation .................................................................................... I.6-1
CHAPTER 7. Measurement of radiation .......................................................................................... I.7-1
CHAPTER 8. Measurement of sunshine duration ........................................................................... I.8-1
CHAPTER 9. Measurement of visibility ........................................................................................... I.9-1
CHAPTER 10. Measurement of evaporation ...................................................................................... I.10-1
CHAPTER 11. Measurement of soil moisture .................................................................................... I.11-1
CHAPTER 12. Measurement of upper-air pressure, temperature and humidity ............................... I.12-1
CHAPTER 13. Measurement of upper wind....................................................................................... I.13-1
CHAPTER 14. Present and past weather; state of the ground ........................................................... I.14-1
CHAPTER 15. Observation of clouds ................................................................................................. I.15-1
CHAPTER 16. Measurement of ozone ............................................................................................... I.16-1
CHAPTER 17. Measurement of atmospheric composition ................................................................ I.17-1
pagePART II. OBSERVING SYSTEMS
cHaPter 1. Measurements at automatic weather stations ............................................................ II.1-1
cHaPter 2. Measurements and observations at aeronautical meteorological stations ................. II.2-1
cHaPter 3. aircraft observations ................................................................................................... II.3-1
cHaPter 4. Marine observations ................................................................................................... II.4-1
cHaPter 5. special profiling techniques for the boundary layer and the troposphere ................ II.5-1
cHaPter 6. rocket measurements in the stratosphere and mesosphere ....................................... II.6-1
cHaPter 7. locating the sources of atmospherics ......................................................................... II.7-1
cHaPter 8. Satellite observations .................................................................................................. I I.8-1
cHaPter 9. radar measurements ................................................................................................... II.9-1
cHaPter 10. Balloon techniques ..................................................................................................... II.10-1
cHaPter 11. urban observations ..................................................................................................... II.11-1
cHaPter 12. road Meteorological Measurements ........................................................................... II.12-1
PART III. Q
UAL I TYASSURANCE
AN D M ANAGE M ENT OF O B SER VI NG SYSTE M ScHaPter 1. quality management .................................................................................................. III.1-1
cHaPter 2. sampling meteorological variables ............................................................................. III.2-1
cHaPter 3. data reduction ............................................................................................................ III.3-1
cHaPter 4. testing, calibration and intercomparison ................................................................... III.4-1
cHaPter 5. taining of instrument specialists ................................................................................ III.5-1
L I ST OF CONTR IB UTORS TO T H E GU ID EIII.3-
1 pagePART I
MEASURE
MENT OF
METEOROLOG
I CAL V AR I A B LESPART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES
CONTENTS
cHaPter 1. general....................................................................................................................... I.1-1
1.1Meteorological observations
I.1- 1 1.2Meteorological observing systems
I.1- 2 1.3 general requirements of a meteorological station I.1- 2 1.4 general requirements of instruments I.1- 6 1.5Measurement standards and definitions
I.1- 7 1.6 uncertainty of measurements I.1- 9annex 1.a. regional centres ......................................................................................................... I.1-17
annex 1.B. operational measurement uncertainty requirements and instrumentperformance ................................................................................................................................... I.1-19
annex 1.c. station exposure description ...................................................................................... I.1-25
references and further reading ...................................................................................................... I.1-27
cHaPter 2. MeasureMent of teMPerature ............................................................................. I.2-1
2.1 general I.2- 1 2.2 l iquid-in-glass thermometers I.2- 42.3 Mechanical thermographs ................................................................................................... I.2-10
2.4 electrical thermometers ....................................................................................................... I.2-11
2.5 radiation shields I.2-1 6annex. defining the fixed points of the international temperature scale of 1990 ....................... I.2-18
references and further reading ...................................................................................................... I.2-20
cHaPter 3. MeasureMent of atMosPHerIc Pressure ........................................................... I.3-1
3.1 general I.3- 13.2 Mercury barometers ............................................................................................................. I.3-3
3.3 electronic barometers I.3- 8 3.4 aneroid barometers.............................................................................................................. I.3-11